Vocabulary+Building+In+English+II



Hey..!! Welcome to our page..!! In this page, we are going to teach all of you about several parts in vocabulary. Why is it so important to know such a wide range of vocabulary? It is because, by knowing many vocabularies, one can be such a good English speaker. One can have many choices of words to use and it will make the language become more interesting. In this page, we will focus on four different angles of vocabulary which are : **
 * INTRODUCTION
 * 1) ** Synonym and Antonym ; **
 * 2) ** Nationality-name of Countries and People ; **
 * 3) ** Classical and Foreign Words and Phrases and **
 * 4) ** Abbreviations and Signs **
 * This page is divided into several parts according to the topics to make it easier for all of you to learn it. Do not think that to learn vocabulary is hard. Think that it is easy so that all of you can master it well. Thus, what are you waiting for..?? Dig as much as you can. ENJOY..!! **

LESSON 1 - SYNONYM AND OPPOSITE

Synonym
Synonyms are different words (or sometimes phrases) with identical or very similar meanings. Words that are synonyms are said to be synonymous, and the state of being a synonym is called synonymy. The word comes from [|Ancient Greek] syn (σύν ) ("with") and onomaὄνομα ) ("name"). The words car and automobile are synonyms. Similarly, if we talk about a long time or an extended time, long and extended become synonyms. In the figurative sense, two words are often said to be synonymous if they have the same connotation: "a widespread impression that … Hollywood was synonymous with immorality" ([|Doris Kearns Goodwin]) Synonyms can be any part of speech (e.g. nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs or prepositions), as long as both members of the pair are the same part of speech. More examples of English synonyms are:
 * student and pupil (noun)
 * petty crime and misdemeanor (noun)
 * buy and purchase (verb)
 * sick and ill (adjective)
 * quickly and speedily (adverb)
 * on and upon (preposition)

 Note that synonyms are defined with respect to certain senses of words; for instance, pupil as the "aperture in the iris of the eye" is not synonymous with student. Similarly, he expired means the same as he died, yet my passport has expired cannot be replaced by my passport has died.

In English, many synonyms evolved from the parallel use, in the early medieval period, of Norman French (from Latin) and Old English (Anglo-Saxon) words, often with some words being used principally by the Saxon peasantry ("folk", "freedom", "bowman") and their synonyms by the Norman nobility ("people", "liberty", "archer"). Some [|lexicographers] claim that no synonyms have exactly the same meaning (in all contexts or social levels of language) because [|etymology], [|orthography] , [|phonic] qualities, ambiguous meanings, usage, etc. make them unique. Different words that are similar in meaning usually differ for a reason: feline is more formal than cat; long and extended are only synonyms in one usage and not in others (for example, a long arm is not the same as an extended arm). Synonyms are also a source of [|euphemisms]. The purpose of a [|thesaurus] is to offer the user a listing of similar or related words; these are often, but not always, synonym.


 * List of synonyms**
 * admit || confess || leave || abandon ||
 * alive || lively || listen || hear ||
 * also || too || little || small ||
 * amount || quantity || look || see ||
 * ask || inquire || loving || fond ||
 * assembly || gathering || loyal || true ||
 * bad || evil || mad || insane ||
 * beg || implore || margin || edge ||
 * begin || commence || mistake || error ||
 * behaviour || conduct || most || maximum ||
 * big || large || new || modern ||
 * blamed || accused || noisy || rowdy ||
 * blank || empty || noted || well-known ||
 * bottom || foot || obey || submit ||
 * brave || daring || old || ancient ||
 * bright || shinning || omen || sign ||
 * broad || wide || oral || verbal ||
 * buy || purchase || outside || exterior ||
 * careful || cautious || part || portion ||
 * catch || capture || policeman || constable ||
 * centre || middle || polite || courteous ||
 * change || alter || poor || destitute ||
 * cheat || deceive || port || harbour ||
 * choose || select || praise || compliment ||
 * clergyman || minister || pretty || beautiful ||
 * close || near || protect || guard ||
 * clothes || dress || push || thrust ||
 * copy || imitate || queen || empress ||
 * correct || accurate || quick || rapid ||
 * cunning || sly || quiet || peaceful ||
 * cure || remedy || rare || scarce ||
 * damp || moist || read || peruse ||
 * dangerous || risky || ready || alert ||
 * deadly || fatal || real || genuine ||
 * dear || expensive || reckless || rash ||
 * decrease || reduce || red || ruddy ||
 * disease || sickness || remember || recollect ||
 * disorder || chaos || rich || wealthy ||
 * dull || gloomy || riot || revolt ||
 * dumb || mute || roam || wander ||
 * eatable || edible || rough || coarse ||
 * ebb || recede || round || circular ||
 * end || conclusion || rude || impolite ||
 * enemy || foe || rule || govern ||
 * enough || sufficient || sad || unhappy ||
 * escape || elude || safe || secure ||
 * fable || myth || scatter || disperse ||
 * fall || drop || seldom || rarely ||
 * false || untrue || separate || sever ||
 * far || distant || short || brief ||
 * feather || plume || shorten || abbreviate ||
 * fertile || fruitful || show || exhibit ||
 * fierce || ferocious || sleepy || drowsy ||
 * fight || battle || slim || slender ||
 * float || drift || smell || scent ||
 * force || compel || steed || horse ||
 * foretell || predict || stern || strict ||
 * free || release || stick || adhere ||
 * friend || ally || stop || halt ||
 * gain || profit || strong || powerful ||
 * game || recreation || style || fashion ||
 * gather || collect || surprise || astonishment ||
 * gay || cheerful || surrender || yield ||
 * general || common || surround || encircle ||
 * glad || happy || swamp || marsh ||
 * glaring || dazzling || talk || conversation ||
 * habit || custom || teach || educate ||
 * hard || difficult || tested || tried ||
 * hate || detest || thief || burglar ||
 * height || altitude || thin || lean ||
 * help || assist || top || summit ||
 * hide || conceal || trick || hoax ||
 * high || tall || trust || believe ||
 * home || residence || try || attempt ||
 * hug || embrace || understand || comprehend ||
 * huge || enormous || usually || generally ||
 * industrious || hardworking || vacant || empty ||
 * inside || interior || value || worth ||
 * join || unite || victory || triumph ||
 * jump || leap || weak || feeble ||
 * just || fair || whole || entire ||
 * king || emperor || wonder || amazement ||
 * lazy || indolent || yearly || annually ||
 * least || minimum || young || youthful ||



** Opposite ** In [|lexical semantics], **opposites** are words that lie in an inherently incompatible binary relationship as in the opposite pairs //male : female//, //long : short//, //up : down//, and //precede : follow//. The notion of incompatibility here refers to fact that one word in an opposite pair [|entails] that it is not the other pair member. For example, something that is //long// entails that it is not //short//. It is referred to as a 'binary' relationship because there are two members in a set of opposites. The relationship between opposites is known as **opposition**. A member of a pair of opposites can generally be determined by the question //What is the opposite of __X__ ?// The term **antonym** (and the related **antonymy**) has also been commonly used as a term that is synonymous with //opposite//; however, the term also has other more restricted meanings. One usage has //antonym// referring to both gradable opposites, such as //long : short//, and (non-gradable) complementary opposites, such as //male : female//, while opposites of the types //up : down// and //precede : follow// are excluded from the definition. A third usage (particularly that of the influential Lyons 1968, 1977) defines the term //antonym// as referring to only gradable opposites (the //long : short// type) while the other types are referred to with different terms. Therefore, as Crystal (2003) warns, the terms //antonymy// and //antonym// should be regarded with care. In this article, the usage of Lyons (1963, 1977) and Cruse (1986, 2004) will be followed where //antonym// is restricted to gradable opposites and //opposite// is used as the general term referring to any of the subtypes discussed below.

Opposites are, interestingly, simultaneously different and similar in meaning. Typically, they differ in only one dimension of meaning, but are similar in most other respects, including similarity in grammar and positions of semantic abnormality. Additionally, not all words have an opposite. Some words are non-opposable. For example, animal or plant species have no binary opposites (other than possible gender opposites such as lion/lioness, etc.); the word //platypus// therefore has no word that stands in opposition to it (hence the unanswerability of //What is the opposite of __platypus__?//). Other words are opposable but have an accidental gap in a given language's [|lexicon]. For example, the word //devout// lacks a lexical opposite, but it is fairly easy to conceptualize a parameter of devoutness where //devout// lies at the positive pole with a missing member at the negative pole. Opposites of such words can nevertheless sometimes be formed with the prefixes //un-// or //non-//, with varying degrees of naturalness. For example, the word //undevout// appears in Webster's dictionary of 1828, while the pattern of //non-person// could conceivably be extended to //non-platypus//.

Opposites may be viewed as a special type of incompatibility. [|[1]] Words that are incompatible create the following type of [|entailment] (where //X// is a given word and //Y// is a different word incompatible with word X): [|[2]]

sentence //A is __X__// entails sentence //A is not __Y__// [|[3]] An example of an incompatible pair of words is //cat : dog//: // It's __a cat__ // entails //It's not __a dog__// [|[4]]

This incompatibility is also found in the opposite pairs //fast : slow// and //stationary : moving//, as can be seen below: // It's __fast__ // entails //It's not __slow__// [|[5]] // It's __stationary__ // entails //It's not __moving__//

Cruse (2004) identifies some basic characteristics of opposites:
 * <span style="color: #ff00ff; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 12pt;">binarity
 * <span style="color: #ff00ff; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 12pt;">inheritness
 * <span style="color: #ff00ff; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 12pt;">patency

<span style="color: #ff00ff; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 12pt;">
<span style="color: #ff00ff; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 12pt;"> // Complementary opposites // are pairs that express absolute opposites, like //mortal// and //immortal//.
 * -Complementaries **
 * <span style="color: #ff00ff; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 12pt;">//interactives//
 * <span style="color: #ff00ff; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 12pt;">//satisfactives//
 * <span style="color: #ff00ff; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 12pt;">//counteractives//

<span style="color: #ff00ff; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 12pt;">** -Antonyms (gradable opposites) ** For the purposes of this article (see introduction), **antonyms**, from the [|Greek] [|//anti//] ("opposite") and //onoma// ("name") are gradable opposites. Gradable opposites lie at opposite ends of a continuous spectrum of meanings; examples are //hot// and //cold//, //slow// and //fast//, and //fat// and //skinny//. Words may have several different antonyms, depending on the meaning: both //long// and //tall// can be antonyms of //short//. Though the word //antonym// was only coined by [|philologists] in the 19th century, such relationships are a fundamental part of a language, in contrast to [|synonyms], which are a result of history and drawing of fine distinctions, or [|homonyms], which are mostly [|etymological] accidents or coincidences. Languages often have ways of creating antonyms as an easy extension of lexicon. For example, English has the prefixes //in-// and //un-//, so //unreal// is the antonym of //real// and //indocile// is of //docile//. Some planned languages abundantly use such devices to reduce vocabulary multiplication. [|Esperanto] has //mal-// (compare //bona// = "good" and //malbona// = "bad"), [|Damin] has //kuri-// (//tjitjuu// "small", //kuritjitjuu// "large") and [|Newspeak] has //un-// (as in //ungood//, "bad").


 * -Directional opposites **
 * <span style="color: #ff00ff; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 12pt;">//antipodals//
 * <span style="color: #ff00ff; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 12pt;">//reversives//
 * <span style="color: #ff00ff; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 12pt;">//converses// (or //relational opposites//)
 * <span style="color: #ff00ff; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 12pt;">//pseudo-opposites//

<span style="color: #ff00ff; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 12pt;">** -Relational antonyms ** (**Converses**) are pairs in which one describes a relationship between two objects and the other describes the same relationship when the two objects are reversed, such as //parent// and //child//, //teacher// and //student//, or //buy// and //sell//.


 * List of opposites**
 * above || below || here || there ||
 * abroad || home || hide || show ||
 * absent || present || high || low ||
 * accept || refuse || hill || valley ||
 * active || passive || humble || proud ||
 * add || subtract || in || out ||
 * admit || deny || increase || decrease ||
 * adult || child || inner || outer ||
 * alive || dead || inside || outside ||
 * asleep || awake || interesting || dull ||
 * back || front || joy || sorrow ||
 * backwards || forward || junior || senior ||
 * bad || good || kind || cruel ||
 * barren || fertile || knowledge || ignorance ||
 * beautiful || ugly || lazy || industrious ||
 * before || after || lead || follow ||
 * begin || end || least || greatest ||
 * bent || straight || lend || borrow ||
 * better || worse || level || steep ||
 * big || small || life || death ||
 * black || white || liquid || solid ||
 * bless || curse || long || short ||
 * blunt || sharp || loss || gain ||
 * bold || timid || loud || soft ||
 * bravery || cowardice || love || hate ||
 * bright || dull || masculine || feminine ||
 * broad || narrow || master || servant ||
 * busy || idle || miser || spendthrift ||
 * buy || sell || modern || ancient ||
 * capture || release || motorist || pedestrian ||
 * catch || throw || mountain || valley ||
 * cheap || dear || natural || artificial ||
 * clean || dirty || never || always ||
 * clever || foolish || noise || silence ||
 * cloudy || clear || noisy || quiet ||
 * coarse || fine || normal || abnormal ||
 * cold || hot || north || south ||
 * come || go || obey || command ||
 * common || rare || often || seldom ||
 * contract || expand || old || new ||
 * cool || warm || open || shut/close ||
 * coward || hero || order || chaos ||
 * cry || laugh || pardon || punish ||
 * daily || nightly || peace || war ||
 * danger || safety || plural || singular ||
 * dark || bright || polite || rude ||
 * dawn || dusk || poor || rich ||
 * day || night || powerful || weak ||
 * deep || shallow || praise || blame ||
 * depth || height || public || private ||
 * die || live || purchase || sell ||
 * difficult || easy || push || pull ||
 * divide || multiply || question || answer ||
 * drunk || sober || quick || slow ||
 * dry || wet || raw || cooked ||
 * dwarf || giant || real || imaginary ||
 * early || late || right || left ||
 * east || west || rise || fall ||
 * ebb || flow || rough || smooth ||
 * empty || full || safe || dangerous ||
 * enemy || friend || same || different ||
 * enjoy || dislike || separate || join ||
 * evening || morning || smile || frown ||
 * ever || never || straight || crooked ||
 * everybody || nobody || strong || weak ||
 * everywhere || nowhere || summer || winter ||
 * exit || entrance || sweet || sour ||
 * failure || success || talk || listen ||
 * fair || dark || tall || short ||
 * far || near || tame || wild ||
 * fat || thin || teach || learn ||
 * few || many || these || those ||
 * find || lose || thick || thin ||
 * finish || start || this || that ||
 * first || last || tight || loose ||
 * foolish || wise || tiny || huge ||
 * foreign || local || top || bottom ||
 * forget || remember || true || false ||
 * found || lost || truth || lie ||
 * fresh || stale || under || over ||
 * future || past || up || down ||
 * generous || selfish || vacant || occupied ||
 * give || take || victory || defeat ||
 * guilty || innocent || wide || narrow ||
 * happy || sad || win || lose ||
 * hard || soft || within || without ||
 * head || tail || work || rest ||
 * heavy || light || wrong || right ||
 * hell || heaven || yes || no ||
 * help || hinder || young || old ||

<span style="color: #ff00ff; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 12pt;">**External links**
 * <span style="color: #ff00ff; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 12pt;">[|Bibliography of Antonymy: English Sources]
 * <span style="color: #ff00ff; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 12pt;">[|Thesaurus.com] - also provides for antonyms.
 * <span style="color: #ff00ff; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 12pt;">[|Translation of the word - Antonym]
 * <span style="color: #ff00ff; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 12pt;">[|Antonym Test - Enrich your vocabulary]
 * <span style="color: #ff00ff; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 12pt;">[|Oppo-site] - a humorous website dedicated to finding the opposites of words

<span style="background-color: #000000; color: #0075ff; display: block; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 130%; text-align: center;">LESSON 2 - NATIONALITY-NAME OF COUNTRIES AND PEOPLE **Look at these example sentences:**
 * This chart lists many of the countries or nations in the world, with the following information: **
 * ** Name of country **
 * ** Adjective used for that country (also describes nationality) **
 * ** Noun used for a person from that country **

<span style="display: block; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; text-align: center;">She comes from **France**. She is **French**. Her nationality is **French**. She is a **Frenchwoman**. She drives a **French** car. She speaks **French**.

|| ** Adjective ** || ** Person ** || || ** Afghan ** || ** an Afghan ** || || ** Albanian ** || ** an Albanian ** || || ** Algerian ** || ** an Algerian ** || || ** Andorran ** || ** an Andorran ** || || ** Angolan ** || ** an Angolan ** || || ** Argentinian ** || ** an Argentinian ** || || ** Armenian ** || ** an Armenian ** || || ** Australian ** || ** an Australian ** || || ** Austrian ** || ** an Austrian ** || || ** Azerbaijani ** || ** an Azerbaijani ** || || ** Bahamian ** || ** a Bahamian ** || || ** Bahraini ** || ** a Bahraini ** || || ** Bangladeshi ** || ** a Bangladeshi ** || || ** Barbadian ** || ** a Barbadian ** || || ** Belorussian //or// Byelorussian ** || ** a Belorussian //or// a Byelorussian ** || || ** Belgian ** || ** a Belgian ** || || ** Belizian ** || ** a Belizian ** || || ** Beninese ** || ** a Beninese ** || || ** Bhutanese ** || ** a Bhutanese ** || || ** Bolivian ** || ** a Bolivian ** || || ** Botswanan ** || ** a Tswana ** || || ** Brazilian ** || ** a Brazilian ** || || ** British ** || ** a Briton ** || || ** Bruneian ** || ** a Bruneian ** || || ** Bulgarian ** || ** a Bulgarian ** || Tobagan/Tobagonian ** || ** a Trinidadian a Tobagan/Tobagonian ** ||
 * ** Country **
 * ** Afghanistan **
 * ** Albania **
 * ** Algeria **
 * ** Andorra **
 * ** Angola **
 * ** Argentina **
 * ** Armenia **
 * ** Australia **
 * ** Austria **
 * ** Azerbaijan **
 * ** Bahamas **
 * ** Bahrain **
 * ** Bangladesh **
 * ** Barbados **
 * ** Belarus **
 * ** Belgium **
 * ** Belize **
 * ** Benin **
 * ** Bhutan **
 * ** Bolivia **
 * ** Bosnia-Herzegovina ** || ** Bosnian ** || ** a Bosnian ** ||
 * ** Botswana **
 * ** Brazil **
 * ** Britain **
 * ** Brunei **
 * ** Bulgaria **
 * ** Burkina ** || ** Burkinese ** || ** a Burkinese ** ||
 * ** Burma (//official name// Myanmar) ** || ** Burmese ** || ** a Burmese ** ||
 * ** Burundi ** || ** Burundian ** || ** a Burundian ** ||
 * ** Cambodia ** || ** Cambodian ** || ** a Cambodian ** ||
 * ** Cameroon ** || ** Cameroonian ** || ** a Cameroonian ** ||
 * ** Canada ** || ** Canadian ** || ** a Canadian ** ||
 * ** Cape Verde Islands ** || ** Cape Verdean ** || ** a Cape Verdean ** ||
 * ** Chad ** || ** Chadian ** || ** a Chadian ** ||
 * ** Chile ** || ** Chilean ** || ** a Chilean ** ||
 * ** China ** || ** Chinese ** || ** a Chinese ** ||
 * ** Colombia ** || ** Colombian ** || ** a Colombian ** ||
 * ** Congo ** || ** Congolese ** || ** a Congolese ** ||
 * ** Costa Rica ** || ** Costa Rican ** || ** a Costa Rican ** ||
 * ** Croatia ** || ** Croat //or// Croatian ** || ** a Croat //or// a Croatian ** ||
 * ** Cuba ** || ** Cuban ** || ** a Cuban ** ||
 * ** Cyprus ** || ** Cypriot ** || ** a Cypriot ** ||
 * ** Czech Republic ** || ** Czech ** || ** a Czech ** ||
 * ** Denmark ** || ** Danish ** || ** a Dane ** ||
 * ** Djibouti ** || ** Djiboutian ** || ** a Djiboutian ** ||
 * ** Dominica ** || ** Dominican ** || ** a Dominican ** ||
 * ** Dominican Republic ** || ** Dominican ** || ** a Dominican ** ||
 * ** Ecuador ** || ** Ecuadorean ** || ** an Ecuadorean ** ||
 * ** Egypt ** || ** Egyptian ** || ** an Egyptian ** ||
 * ** El Salvador ** || ** Salvadorean ** || ** a Salvadorean ** ||
 * ** England ** || ** English ** || ** an Englishman, an Englishwoman ** ||
 * ** Eritrea ** || ** Eritrean ** || ** an Eritrean ** ||
 * ** Estonia ** || ** Estonian ** || ** an Estonian ** ||
 * ** Ethiopia ** || ** Ethiopian ** || ** an Ethiopian ** ||
 * ** Fiji ** || ** Fijian ** || ** a Fijian ** ||
 * ** Finland ** || ** Finnish ** || ** a Finn ** ||
 * ** France ** || ** French ** || ** a Frenchman, a Frenchwoman ** ||
 * ** Gabon ** || ** Gabonese ** || ** a Gabonese ** ||
 * ** Gambia, the ** || ** Gambian ** || ** a Gambian ** ||
 * ** Georgia ** || ** Georgian ** || ** a Georgian ** ||
 * ** Germany ** || ** German ** || ** a German ** ||
 * ** Ghana ** || ** Ghanaian ** || ** a Ghanaian ** ||
 * ** Greece ** || ** Greek ** || ** a Greek ** ||
 * ** Grenada ** || ** Grenadian ** || ** a Grenadian ** ||
 * ** Guatemala ** || ** Guatemalan ** || ** a Guatemalan ** ||
 * ** Guinea ** || ** Guinean ** || ** a Guinean ** ||
 * ** Guyana ** || ** Guyanese ** || ** a Guyanese ** ||
 * ** Haiti ** || ** Haitian ** || ** a Haitian ** ||
 * ** Holland (//also// Netherlands) ** || ** Dutch ** || ** a Dutchman, a Dutchwoman ** ||
 * ** Honduras ** || ** Honduran ** || ** a Honduran ** ||
 * ** Hungary ** || ** Hungarian ** || ** a Hungarian ** ||
 * ** Iceland ** || ** Icelandic ** || ** an Icelander ** ||
 * ** India ** || ** Indian ** || ** an Indian ** ||
 * ** Indonesia ** || ** Indonesian ** || ** an Indonesian ** ||
 * ** Iran ** || ** Iranian ** || ** an Iranian ** ||
 * ** Iraq ** || ** Iraqi ** || ** an Iraqi ** ||
 * ** Ireland, Republic of ** || ** Irish ** || ** an Irishman, an Irishwoman ** ||
 * ** Israel ** || ** Israeli ** || ** an Israeli ** ||
 * ** Italy ** || ** Italian ** || ** an Italian ** ||
 * ** Jamaica ** || ** Jamaican ** || ** a Jamaican ** ||
 * ** Japan ** || ** Japanese ** || ** a Japanese ** ||
 * ** Jordan ** || ** Jordanian ** || ** a Jordanian ** ||
 * ** Kazakhstan ** || ** Kazakh ** || ** a Kazakh ** ||
 * ** Kenya ** || ** Kenyan ** || ** a Kenyan ** ||
 * ** Korea //see// North Korea, South Korea ** || || ||
 * ** Kuwait ** || ** Kuwaiti ** || ** a Kuwaiti ** ||
 * ** Laos ** || ** Laotian ** || ** a Laotian ** ||
 * ** Latvia ** || ** Latvian ** || ** a Latvian ** ||
 * ** Lebanon ** || ** Lebanese ** || ** a Lebanese ** ||
 * ** Liberia ** || ** Liberian ** || ** a Liberian ** ||
 * ** Libya ** || ** Libyan ** || ** a Libyan ** ||
 * ** Liechtenstein ** || ** - ** || ** a Liechtensteiner ** ||
 * ** Lithuania ** || ** Lithuanian ** || ** a Lithuanian ** ||
 * ** Luxembourg ** || ** - ** || ** a Luxembourger ** ||
 * ** Macedonia ** || ** Macedonian ** || ** a Macedonian ** ||
 * ** Madagascar ** || ** Malagasay //or// Madagascan ** || ** a Malagasay //or// a Madagascan ** ||
 * ** Malawi ** || ** Malawian ** || ** a Malawian ** ||
 * ** Malaysia ** || ** Malaysian ** || ** a Malaysian ** ||
 * ** Maldives ** || ** Maldivian ** || ** a Maldivian ** ||
 * ** Mali ** || ** Malian ** || ** a Malian ** ||
 * ** Malta ** || ** Maltese ** || ** a Maltese ** ||
 * ** Mauritania ** || ** Mauritanian ** || ** a Mauritanian ** ||
 * ** Mauritius ** || ** Mauritian ** || ** a Mauritian ** ||
 * ** Mexico ** || ** Mexican ** || ** a Mexican ** ||
 * ** Moldova ** || ** Moldovan ** || ** a Moldovan ** ||
 * ** Monaco ** || ** Monégasque //or// Monacan ** || ** a Monégasque //or// a Monacan ** ||
 * ** Mongolia ** || ** Mongolian ** || ** a Mongolian ** ||
 * ** Montenegro ** || ** Montenegrin ** || ** a Montenegrin ** ||
 * ** Morocco ** || ** Moroccan ** || ** a Moroccan ** ||
 * ** Mozambique ** || ** Mozambican ** || ** a Mozambican ** ||
 * ** Myanmar //see// Burma ** || ** - ** || ** - ** ||
 * ** Namibia ** || ** Namibian ** || ** a Namibian ** ||
 * ** Nepal ** || ** Nepalese ** || ** a Nepalese ** ||
 * ** Netherlands, the (//see// Holland) ** || ** Dutch ** || ** a Dutchman, a Dutchwoman, //or// a Netherlander ** ||
 * ** New Zealand ** || ** - ** || ** a New Zealander ** ||
 * ** Nicaragua ** || ** Nicaraguan ** || ** a Nicaraguan ** ||
 * ** Niger ** || ** Nigerien ** || ** a Nigerien ** ||
 * ** Nigeria ** || ** Nigerian ** || ** a Nigerian ** ||
 * ** North Korea ** || ** North Korean ** || ** a North Korean ** ||
 * ** Norway ** || ** Norwegian ** || ** a Norwegian ** ||
 * ** Oman ** || ** Omani ** || ** an Omani ** ||
 * ** Pakistan ** || ** Pakistani ** || ** a Pakistani ** ||
 * ** Panama ** || ** Panamanian ** || ** a Panamanian ** ||
 * ** Papua New Guinea ** || ** Papua New Guinean //or// Guinean ** || ** a Papua New Guinean //or// a Guinean ** ||
 * ** Paraguay ** || ** Paraguayan ** || ** a Paraguayan ** ||
 * ** Peru ** || ** Peruvian ** || ** a Peruvian ** ||
 * ** the Philippines ** || ** Philippine ** || ** a Filipino ** ||
 * ** Poland ** || ** Polish ** || ** a Pole ** ||
 * ** Portugal ** || ** Portuguese ** || ** a Portuguese ** ||
 * ** Qatar ** || ** Qatari ** || ** a Qatari ** ||
 * ** Romania ** || ** Romanian ** || ** a Romanian ** ||
 * ** Russia ** || ** Russian ** || ** a Russian ** ||
 * ** Rwanda ** || ** Rwandan ** || ** a Rwandan ** ||
 * ** Saudi Arabia ** || ** Saudi Arabian //or// Saudi ** || ** a Saudi Arabian //or// a Saudi ** ||
 * ** Scotland ** || ** Scottish ** || ** a Scot ** ||
 * ** Senegal ** || ** Senegalese ** || ** a Senegalese ** ||
 * ** Serbia ** || ** Serb //or// Serbian ** || ** a Serb //or// a Serbian ** ||
 * ** Seychelles, the ** || ** Seychellois ** || ** a Seychellois ** ||
 * ** Sierra Leone ** || ** Sierra Leonian ** || ** a Sierra Leonian ** ||
 * ** Singapore ** || ** Singaporean ** || ** a Singaporean ** ||
 * ** Slovakia ** || ** Slovak ** || ** a Slovak ** ||
 * ** Slovenia ** || ** Slovene //or// Slovenian ** || ** a Slovene //or// a Slovenian ** ||
 * ** Solomon Islands ** || ** - ** || ** a Solomon Islander ** ||
 * ** Somalia ** || ** Somali ** || ** a Somali ** ||
 * ** South Africa ** || ** South African ** || ** a South African ** ||
 * ** South Korea ** || ** South Korean ** || ** a South Korean ** ||
 * ** Spain ** || ** Spanish ** || ** a Spaniard ** ||
 * ** Sri Lanka ** || ** Sri Lankan ** || ** a Sri Lankan ** ||
 * ** Sudan ** || ** Sudanese ** || ** a Sudanese ** ||
 * ** Suriname ** || ** Surinamese ** || ** a Surinamer //or// a Surinamese ** ||
 * ** Swaziland ** || ** Swazi ** || ** a Swazi ** ||
 * ** Sweden ** || ** Swedish ** || ** a Swede ** ||
 * ** Switzerland ** || ** Swiss ** || ** a Swiss ** ||
 * ** Syria ** || ** Syrian ** || ** a Syrian ** ||
 * ** Taiwan ** || ** Taiwanese ** || ** a Taiwanese ** ||
 * ** Tajikistan ** || ** Tajik //or// Tadjik ** || ** a Tajik //or// a Tadjik ** ||
 * ** Tanzania ** || ** Tanzanian ** || ** a Tanzanian ** ||
 * ** Thailand ** || ** Thai ** || ** a Thai ** ||
 * ** Togo ** || ** Togolese ** || ** a Togolese ** ||
 * ** Trinidad and Tobago ** || ** Trinidadian
 * ** Tunisia ** || ** Tunisian ** || ** a Tunisian ** ||
 * ** Turkey ** || ** Turkish ** || ** a Turk ** ||
 * ** Turkmenistan ** || ** Turkmen //or// Turkoman ** || ** a Turkmen //or// a Turkoman ** ||
 * ** Tuvali ** || ** Tuvaluan ** || ** a Tuvaluan ** ||
 * ** Uganda ** || ** Ugandan ** || ** a Ugandan ** ||
 * ** Ukraine ** || ** Ukrainian ** || ** a Ukrainian ** ||
 * ** United Arab Emirates (UAE) ** || ** - ** || ** - ** ||
 * ** United Kingdom (UK) ** || ** British ** || ** a Briton ** ||
 * ** United States of America (USA) ** || ** - ** || ** a citizen of the USA ** ||
 * ** Uruguay ** || ** Uruguayan ** || ** a Uruguayan ** ||
 * ** Uzbekistan ** || ** Uzbek ** || ** an Uzbek ** ||
 * ** Vanuata ** || ** Vanuatuan ** || ** a Vanuatuan ** ||
 * ** Vatican City ** || ** - ** || ** - ** ||
 * ** Venezuela ** || ** Venezuelan ** || ** a Venezuelan ** ||
 * ** Vietnam ** || ** Vietnamese ** || ** a Vietnamese ** ||
 * ** Wales ** || ** Welsh ** || ** a Welshman, a Welshwoman ** ||
 * ** Western Samoa ** || ** Western Samoan ** || ** a Western Samoan ** ||
 * ** Yemen ** || ** Yemeni ** || ** a Yemeni ** ||
 * ** Yugoslavia ** || ** Yugoslav ** || ** a Yugoslav ** ||
 * ** Zaire ** || ** Zaïrean ** || ** a Zaïrean ** ||
 * ** Zambia ** || ** Zambian ** || ** a Zambian ** ||
 * ** Zimbabwe ** || ** Zimbabwean ** || ** a Zimbabwean ** ||

<span style="background-color: #000000; color: #0075ff; display: block; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 130%; text-align: center;">LESSON 3 - CLASSICAL AND FOREIGN WORDS AND PHRASES **According to a famous paraphrase of a quote by James D. Nicoll, "English doesn't borrow from other languages. English follows other languages down dark alleys, knocks them over, and goes through their pockets for loose grammar." And loose vocabulary, we might add. Lexicographer and etymologist John Ayto has remarked that English is "an inveterate borrower from other languages." It has been estimated that more than two-thirds of English vocabulary can be traced back to foreign loanwords.** ** ** <span style="background-color: #000000; color: #ffff00; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive;"> **LATIN** <span style="color: #000000; display: block; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; text-align: center;">
 * On the other hand, several lexical borrowings into English flaunt their non-English origin. The following list is a sampler of commonly used French phrases in modern English. **
 * <span style="background-color: #000000; color: #ffff00; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive;">FRENCH
 * ** aide-memoire ** || ** (literally: help-memory): a mnemonic device ** ||
 * ** ambiance ** || ** (literally: surroundings): mood, character, atmosphere (e.g. of a location) ** ||
 * ** au courant ** || ** (literally: in the current; and yes, the English word "current" is of French origin): up-to-date, fashionable ** ||
 * ** au naturel ** || ** (literally: in the natural state): served plainly; nude ** ||
 * ** au poivre ** || ** (French for "with pepper"): as in // steak au poivre //(served with a lot of ground pepper) ** ||
 * ** avant-garde ** || ** (French for "the front guard"): a progressive artistic movement ** ||
 * ** bon voyage ** || ** (literally: good journey!): farewell ** ||
 * ** bourgeois ** || ** (French for "townsman"): member of the middle class ** ||
 * ** compte rendu ** || ** (literally: account rendered): review, report, statement of account ** ||
 * ** cul-de-sac ** || ** (French for "bottom of the bag"): blind alley ** ||
 * ** double entendre ** || ** (literally: double meaning): ambiguity; an expression open to two interpretations, one of which is usually indecent ** ||
 * ** enfant terrible ** || ** (literally: terrifying child): a person of unconventional, avant-garde behavior ** ||
 * ** entente ** || ** (French for "understanding"): the agreement between France and Britain in 1904 (the full French phrase being "entente cordiale") ** ||
 * ** fait accompli ** || ** (French for "accomplished fact"): done deal, irreversible fact ** ||
 * ** femme fatale ** || ** (literally: fatal woman): an irresistibly sexy woman, a woman-siren ** ||
 * ** force majeure ** || ** (literally: superior force): irresistible force, unpredictable and uncontrollable event ** ||
 * ** noblesse oblige ** || ** (literally: nobility obliges): the belief that members of the upper classes are bound to honorable behavior ** ||
 * ** soi-disant ** || ** (literally: saying (about) oneself): so-called, self-styled, self-proclaimed ** ||
 * Because of the strong dual tradition (Germanic and Latin), English is rich in "lexical alternatives", i.e. word couples of Germanic vs. Latin origin, that mean the same... well, almost: // happiness/felicity, pig/pork, work/labor, height/altitude, ask/interrogate, start/commence. //Because of this dual tradition, the Old English // cealf // (calf) can only be served as the Latin // vitellus // (veal).
 * ** ab ovo ** || ** (literally "from the egg"): from the beginning, esp. with reference to a narrative ** ||
 * ** ad hoc ** || ** (literally "towards this"): for this, for a particular purpose only ** ||
 * ** ad infinitum ** || ** (literally "to infinity"): without end, indefinitely ** ||
 * ** ad nauseam ** || ** (literally "to the point of sickness"): in reference to something that is repeated excessively and as a result becomes sickening ** ||
 * ** alma mater ** || ** (Latin for "bountiful mother"): one's former school, college, or university; the official song (hymn) of a college or university ** ||
 * ** caveat emptor ** || ** (Latin for "let the buyer beware"): the buyer is responsible for the quality of the merchandise she buys ** ||
 * ** circa ** || ** (Latin for "around" (cf. circular, circus); literally "surrounding"): about (in a chronological sense), approximately; usually in reference to dates: died // circa // 1400 ** ||
 * ** curriculum vitae ** || ** (literally "course of life"): a concise account of one's education, qualifications, and jobs previously held; a resume (US) ** ||
 * ** ex cathedra ** || ** (literally "from the seat"): decisively, authoritatively, from a position of power and authority ** ||
 * ** in memoriam ** || ** (Latin for "in memory"): in memory of ** ||
 * ** modus operandi ** || ** (Latin for "mode of working"): a characteristic method, a procedure typically followed by someone (esp. a criminal) ** ||
 * ** paterfamilias ** || ** (Latin for "male head of the household"): the father of a family ** ||
 * ** sine qua non ** || ** (literally "without which not"): an indispensable factor ** ||
 * ** verbatim ** || ** (Latin for "word for word"; from // verbum // = word): (quoted) exactly ** ||

** GREEK ** The number of borrowings directly from Greek, outside the technical vocabulary of the medical and life sciences, is much smaller than what we get from Latin. The technical vocabulary of medicine is heavily based on Greek roots, and only slightly less so on Latin. The nomenclatures of botany and biology are almost entirely based on Latin and Greek. The list of Greek words and meaning :

“I have found it,” || || “the many, the general populace, the masses, the common people”; || || “fame, renown, prestige, resulting from achievement,” ||
 * eureka ** ||
 * eureka ** ||
 * hoi polloi **
 * kudos **
 * kudos **
 * plethora **
 * plethora **

|| “to be full,”  || || “discovery through trial,” || || “away from proper behavior,” || || “back, again” + // drom // “run, course” || || “once read,” a word or phrase recorded only once in a given body of text || || “all things flow” || || “speak, write, study” ||
 * heuristic **
 * heuristic **
 * hubris **
 * hubris **
 * palindrome **
 * palindrome **
 * hapax **
 * hapax **
 * panta rhei **
 * panta rhei **
 * prolegomemon **
 * prolegomemon **
 * GERMAN **

English has borrowed relatively few words from German into the ordinary lexicon that still retain their German fl avor, though there are numerous originally German words that have been fully assimilated, like // rucksack //, // protein // , // kindergarten // , // seminar // , // lager // , // veneer // , // sauerkraut //.

The list of German words and meaning :

|| “annexation,” also “political union,” || “lightning war” || “genuine, unadulterated, authentic.” || “leader,” sometimes also capitalized; || || “guest-worker,” || || “shape, form,” || || “living space,” || || “to squirt, spray” || || a style of singing in which the normal singing voice alternates with a falsetto creating an interesting fl uctuating musical e ff ect. || || “to whine, to fi nd fault,” || Italian is the language which the great eighteenth- and nineteenth-century classical composers found most suitable for expressing tempos and dynamics in their musical notation. The list of Italian words and meaning : an infant, a small child || ** che sarà, ** || what will be, will be || sweet doing nothing || ** duce ** || lead, pull  || boldness || || number one  || || a photographer who makes money from pictures taken in violation of the privacy of celebrities || || fi rst lady  || || under the voice, under the breath  || || with the living voice, orally, aloud  ||
 * anschluss **
 * anschluss **
 * Blitzkrieg ** ||
 * Blitzkrieg ** ||
 * echt ** ||
 * echt ** ||
 * führer ** ||
 * führer ** ||
 * gastarbeiter **
 * gastarbeiter **
 * gestalt **
 * gestalt **
 * lebensraum **
 * lebensraum **
 * spritz **
 * spritz **
 * yodel **
 * yodel **
 * kvetch **
 * kvetch **
 * ITALIAN **
 * bambino ** ||
 * bambino ** ||
 * diva ** ||
 * diva ** ||
 * ma **** fi **** a ** ||
 * ma **** fi **** a ** ||
 * numero uno **
 * numero uno **
 * paparazzo **
 * paparazzo **
 * prima donna **
 * prima donna **
 * sotto voce **
 * sotto voce **
 * viva voce **
 * viva voce **

<span style="font-family: Arial,serif; font-size: 15pt;">LESSON 1 - SYNONYM AND OPPOSITE <span style="font-family: Times New Roman,serif;"> <span style="color: #ff00ff; font-family: Comic Sans MS,serif;">**Synonym** <span style="color: #ff00ff; font-family: Comic Sans MS,serif; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal;">Synonyms are different words (or sometimes phrases) with identical or very similar meanings. Words that are synonyms are said to be synonymous, and the state of being a synonym is called synonymy. The word comes from [|__Ancient Greek__]<span style="color: #ff00ff; font-family: Comic Sans MS,serif; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal;"> syn (σύν) ("with") and onoma <span style="color: #ff00ff; font-family: Tahoma,serif; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal;">ὄ <span style="color: #ff00ff; font-family: Comic Sans MS,serif; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal;">νομα) ("name"). The words car and automobile are synonyms. Similarly, if we talk about a long time or an extended time, long and extended become synonyms. In the figurative sense, two words are often said to be synonymous if they have the same connotation: "a widespread impression that … Hollywood was synonymous with immorality" ( [|__Doris Kearns Goodwin__]<span style="color: #ff00ff; font-family: Comic Sans MS,serif; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal;">) <span style="color: #ff00ff; font-family: Comic Sans MS,serif; font-size: 11pt;">Synonyms can be any part of speech (e.g. nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs or prepositions), as long as both members of the pair are the same part of speech. More examples of English synonyms are: <span style="color: #ff00ff; font-family: Comic Sans MS,serif; font-size: 11pt;">Note that synonyms are defined with respect to certain senses of words; for instance, pupil as the "aperture in the iris of the eye" is not synonymous with student. Similarly, he expired means the same as he died, yet my passport has expired cannot be replaced by my passport has died. In English, many synonyms evolved from the parallel use, in the early medieval period, of Norman French (from Latin) and Old English (Anglo-Saxon) words, often with some words being used principally by the Saxon peasantry ("folk", "freedom", "bowman") and their synonyms by the Norman nobility ("people", "liberty", "archer"). <span style="color: #ff00ff; font-family: Comic Sans MS,serif; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal;">Some [|__lexicographers__]<span style="color: #ff00ff; font-family: Comic Sans MS,serif; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal;"> claim that no synonyms have exactly the same meaning (in all contexts or social levels of language) because [|__etymology__]<span style="color: #ff00ff; font-family: Comic Sans MS,serif; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal;">, [|__orthography__]<span style="color: #ff00ff; font-family: Comic Sans MS,serif; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal;">, [|__phonic__]<span style="color: #ff00ff; font-family: Comic Sans MS,serif; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal;">qualities, ambiguous meanings, usage, etc. make them unique. Different words that are similar in meaning usually differ for a reason: feline is more formal than cat; long and extended are only synonyms in one usage and not in others (for example, a long arm is not the same as an extended arm). Synonyms are also a source of [|__euphemisms__]<span style="color: #ff00ff; font-family: Comic Sans MS,serif; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal;">. The purpose of a [|__thesaurus__]<span style="color: #ff00ff; font-family: Comic Sans MS,serif; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal;"> is to offer the user a listing of similar or related words; these are often, but not always, synonym.
 * <span style="color: #ff00ff; font-family: Comic Sans MS,serif; font-size: 11pt;">student and pupil (noun)
 * <span style="color: #ff00ff; font-family: Comic Sans MS,serif; font-size: 11pt;">petty crime and misdemeanor (noun)
 * <span style="color: #ff00ff; font-family: Comic Sans MS,serif; font-size: 11pt;">buy and purchase (verb)
 * <span style="color: #ff00ff; font-family: Comic Sans MS,serif; font-size: 11pt;">sick and ill (adjective)
 * <span style="color: #ff00ff; font-family: Comic Sans MS,serif; font-size: 11pt;">quickly and speedily (adverb)
 * <span style="color: #ff00ff; font-family: Comic Sans MS,serif; font-size: 11pt;">on and upon (preposition)

<span style="color: #ff00ff; font-family: Comic Sans MS,serif; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal;">In __[|lexical semantics]__ <span style="color: #ff00ff; font-family: Comic Sans MS,serif; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal;">, opposites are words that lie in an inherently incompatible binary relationship as in the opposite pairs male : female, long : short, up : down, and precede : follow. The notion of incompatibility here refers to fact that one word in an opposite pair __[|entails]__ <span style="color: #ff00ff; font-family: Comic Sans MS,serif; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal;"> that it is not the other pair member. For example, something that is long entails that it is not short. It is referred to as a 'binary' relationship because there are two members in a set of opposites. The relationship between opposites is known as opposition. A member of a pair of opposites can generally be determined by the question What is the opposite of <span style="color: #ff00ff; font-family: Comic Sans MS,serif; font-style: normal;">__ X __ <span style="color: #ff00ff; font-family: Comic Sans MS,serif; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal;">? <span style="color: #ff00ff; font-family: Comic Sans MS,serif;">The term antonym (and the related antonymy) has also been commonly used as a term that is synonymous with opposite; however, the term also has other more restricted meanings. One usage has antonym referring to both gradable opposites, such as long : short, and (non-gradable) complementary opposites, such as male : female, while opposites of the types up : down and precede : follow are excluded from the definition. A third usage (particularly that of the influential Lyons 1968, 1977) defines the term antonym as referring to only gradable opposites (the long : short type) while the other types are referred to with different terms. Therefore, as Crystal (2003) warns, the terms antonymy and antonym should be regarded with care. In this article, the usage of Lyons (1963, 1977) and Cruse (1986, 2004) will be followed where antonym is restricted to gradable opposites and opposite is used as the general term referring to any of the subtypes discussed below. <span style="color: #ff00ff; font-family: Comic Sans MS,serif; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal;">Opposites are, interestingly, simultaneously different and similar in meaning. Typically, they differ in only one dimension of meaning, but are similar in most other respects, including similarity in grammar and positions of semantic abnormality. Additionally, not all words have an opposite. Some words are non-opposable. For example, animal or plant species have no binary opposites (other than possible gender opposites such as lion/lioness, etc.); the word platypus <span style="color: #ff00ff; font-family: Comic Sans MS,serif; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal;"> <span style="color: #ff00ff; font-family: Comic Sans MS,serif; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal;">therefore has no word that stands in opposition to it (hence <span style="color: #ff00ff; font-family: Comic Sans MS,serif; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal;"> <span style="color: #ff00ff; font-family: Comic Sans MS,serif; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal;">the <span style="color: #ff00ff; font-family: Comic Sans MS,serif; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal;"> <span style="color: #ff00ff; font-family: Comic Sans MS,serif; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal;">unanswerability of What is the opposite of <span style="color: #ff00ff; font-family: Comic Sans MS,serif; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal;">__ platypus __ <span style="color: #ff00ff; font-family: Comic Sans MS,serif; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal;">?). Other words are opposable but have an accidental gap in a given language's [|__lexicon__]<span style="color: #ff00ff; font-family: Comic Sans MS,serif; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal;">. For example, the word devout lacks a lexical opposite, but it is fairly easy to conceptualize a parameter of devoutness where devout lies at the positive pole with a missing member at the negative pole. Opposites of such words can nevertheless sometimes be formed with the prefixes un- or non-, with varying degrees of naturalness. For example, the word undevout appears in Webster's dictionary of 1828, while the pattern of non-person could conceivably be extended to non-platypus. Opposites may be viewed as a special type of incompatibility. [|__[1__]]<span style="color: #ff00ff; font-family: Comic Sans MS,serif; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal;"> Words that are incompatible create the following type of [|__entailment__]<span style="color: #ff00ff; font-family: Comic Sans MS,serif; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal;"> (where X is a given word and Y is a different word incompatible with word X): [|__[2__]] <span style="color: #ff00ff; font-family: Comic Sans MS,serif; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal;">sentence A is <span style="color: #ff00ff; font-family: Comic Sans MS,serif; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal;">__ X __ <span style="color: #ff00ff; font-family: Comic Sans MS,serif; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal;"> entails sentence A is not <span style="color: #ff00ff; font-family: Comic Sans MS,serif; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal;">__ Y __ <span style="color: #ff00ff; font-family: Comic Sans MS,serif; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal;"> [|__[3__]] <span style="color: #ff00ff; font-family: Comic Sans MS,serif; font-size: 11pt;">An example of an incompatible pair of words is cat : dog: <span style="color: #ff00ff; font-family: Comic Sans MS,serif; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal;">It's <span style="color: #ff00ff; font-family: Comic Sans MS,serif; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal;">__ a cat __ <span style="color: #ff00ff; font-family: Comic Sans MS,serif; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal;"> entails It's not <span style="color: #ff00ff; font-family: Comic Sans MS,serif; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal;">__ a dog __ <span style="color: #ff00ff; font-family: Comic Sans MS,serif; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal;"> [|__[4__]] <span style="color: #ff00ff; font-family: Comic Sans MS,serif; font-size: 11pt;">This incompatibility is also found in the opposite pairs fast : slow and stationary : moving, as can be seen below: <span style="color: #ff00ff; font-family: Comic Sans MS,serif; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal;">It's <span style="color: #ff00ff; font-family: Comic Sans MS,serif; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal;">__ fast __ <span style="color: #ff00ff; font-family: Comic Sans MS,serif; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal;"> entails It's not <span style="color: #ff00ff; font-family: Comic Sans MS,serif; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal;">__ slow __ <span style="color: #ff00ff; font-family: Comic Sans MS,serif; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal;"> [|__[5__]] <span style="color: #ff00ff; font-family: Comic Sans MS,serif; font-size: 11pt;">It's __stationary__ entails It's not __moving__ Cruse (2004) identifies some basic characteristics of opposites: <span style="color: #ff00ff; font-family: Comic Sans MS,serif; font-size: 11pt;">Subtypes -Complementaries Complementary opposites are pairs that express absolute opposites, like mortal and immortal.
 * <span style="color: #ff00ff; font-family: Comic Sans MS,serif;">Opposite **
 * <span style="color: #ff00ff; font-family: Comic Sans MS,serif; font-size: 11pt;">binarity
 * <span style="color: #ff00ff; font-family: Comic Sans MS,serif; font-size: 11pt;">inheritness
 * <span style="color: #ff00ff; font-family: Comic Sans MS,serif; font-size: 11pt;">patency
 * <span style="color: #ff00ff; font-family: Comic Sans MS,serif; font-size: 11pt;">interactives
 * <span style="color: #ff00ff; font-family: Comic Sans MS,serif; font-size: 11pt;">satisfactives
 * <span style="color: #ff00ff; font-family: Comic Sans MS,serif; font-size: 11pt;">counteractives

<span style="color: #ff00ff; font-family: Comic Sans MS,serif; font-size: 11pt;">-Antonyms (gradable opposites) <span style="color: #ff00ff; font-family: Comic Sans MS,serif; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal;">For the purposes of this article (see introduction), antonyms, from the [|__Greek__]<span style="color: #ff00ff; font-family: Comic Sans MS,serif; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal;"> [|__anti__]<span style="color: #ff00ff; font-family: Comic Sans MS,serif; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal;"> ("opposite") and onoma ("name") are gradable opposites. Gradable opposites lie at <span style="color: #ff00ff; font-family: Comic Sans MS,serif; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal;"> <span style="color: #ff00ff; font-family: Comic Sans MS,serif; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal;">opposite ends of a continuous spectrum of meanings; examples are hot and cold, slow and fast, and fat and skinny. Words may have several different antonyms, depending on the meaning: both long and tall can be antonyms of short. Though the word antonym was only coined by [|__philologists__]<span style="color: #ff00ff; font-family: Comic Sans MS,serif; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal;"> in the 19th century, such relationships are a fundamental part of a language, in contrast to [|__synonyms__]<span style="color: #ff00ff; font-family: Comic Sans MS,serif; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal;">, which are a result of history and drawing of fine distinctions, or [|__homonyms__]<span style="color: #ff00ff; font-family: Comic Sans MS,serif; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal;">, which are mostly [|__etymological__]<span style="color: #ff00ff; font-family: Comic Sans MS,serif; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal;"> accidents or coincidences. <span style="color: #ff00ff; font-family: Comic Sans MS,serif; font-size: 11pt;">Languages often have ways of creating antonyms as an easy extension of lexicon. For example, English has the prefixes in- and un-, so unreal is the antonym of real and indocile is of docile. <span style="color: #ff00ff; font-family: Comic Sans MS,serif; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal;">Some planned languages abundantly use such devices to reduce vocabulary multiplication. [|__Esperanto__]<span style="color: #ff00ff; font-family: Comic Sans MS,serif; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal;"> has mal- (compare bona = "good" and malbona = "bad"), [|__Damin__]<span style="color: #ff00ff; font-family: Comic Sans MS,serif; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal;"> has kuri- (tjitjuu "small", kuritjitjuu "large") and [|__Newspeak__]<span style="color: #ff00ff; font-family: Comic Sans MS,serif; font-size: 11pt; font-style: normal; font-weight: normal;"> has un- (as in ungood, "bad").

<span style="color: #ff00ff; font-family: Comic Sans MS,serif; font-size: 11pt;">-Directional opposites <span style="color: #ff00ff; font-family: Comic Sans MS,serif; font-size: 11pt;">-Relational antonyms (Converses) are pairs in which one describes a relationship between two objects and the other describes the same relationship when the two objects are reversed, such as parent and child, teacher and student, or buy and sell.
 * <span style="color: #ff00ff; font-family: Comic Sans MS,serif; font-size: 11pt;">antipodals
 * <span style="color: #ff00ff; font-family: Comic Sans MS,serif; font-size: 11pt;">reversives
 * <span style="color: #ff00ff; font-family: Comic Sans MS,serif; font-size: 11pt;">converses (or relational opposites)
 * <span style="color: #ff00ff; font-family: Comic Sans MS,serif; font-size: 11pt;">pseudo-opposites
 * <span style="color: #ff00ff; font-family: Comic Sans MS,serif; font-size: 11pt;">

<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,serif;">**External links**
 * [|__Bibliography of Antonymy: English Sources__]
 * [|__Thesaurus.com__]<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,serif;"> - also provides for antonyms.
 * [|__Translation of the word - Antonym__]
 * [|__Antonym Test - Enrich your vocabulary__]
 * [|__Oppo-site__]<span style="font-family: Times New Roman,serif;"> - a humorous website dedicated to finding the opposites of words

<span style="color: #0075ff; font-family: Arial,serif; font-size: 15pt;">LESSON 2 - NATIONALITY-NAME OF COUNTRIES AND PEOPLE <span style="font-family: Times New Roman,serif;"> <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**This chart lists many of the countries or nations in the world, with the following information:** <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Look at these example sentences:**
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Name of country**
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Adjective used for that country (also describes nationality)**
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Noun used for a person from that country**

She comes from **France**. She is **French**. Her nationality is **French**. She is a **Frenchwoman**. She drives a **French** car. She speaks **French**. <span style="font-family: Times New Roman,serif;">

Tobagan/Tobagonian** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**a Trinidadian a Tobagan/Tobagonian** ||
 * <span style="color: #00ff00; font-family: Arial,serif;">**Country** || <span style="color: #00ff00; font-family: Arial,serif;">**Adjective** || <span style="color: #00ff00; font-family: Arial,serif;">**Person** ||
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Afghanistan** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Afghan** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**an Afghan** ||
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Albania** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Albanian** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**an Albanian** ||
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Algeria** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Algerian** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**an Algerian** ||
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Andorra** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Andorran** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**an Andorran** ||
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Angola** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Angolan** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**an Angolan** ||
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Argentina** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Argentinian** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**an Argentinian** ||
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Armenia** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Armenian** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**an Armenian** ||
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Australia** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Australian** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**an Australian** ||
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Austria** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Austrian** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**an Austrian** ||
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Azerbaijan** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Azerbaijani** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**an Azerbaijani** ||
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Bahamas** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Bahamian** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**a Bahamian** ||
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Bahrain** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Bahraini** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**a Bahraini** ||
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Bangladesh** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Bangladeshi** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**a Bangladeshi** ||
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Barbados** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Barbadian** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**a Barbadian** ||
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Belarus** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Belorussian** //**or**// **Byelorussian** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**a Belorussian** //**or**// **a Byelorussian** ||
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Belgium** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Belgian** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**a Belgian** ||
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Belize** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Belizian** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**a Belizian** ||
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Benin** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Beninese** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**a Beninese** ||
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Bhutan** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Bhutanese** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**a Bhutanese** ||
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Bolivia** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Bolivian** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**a Bolivian** ||
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Bosnia-Herzegovina** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Bosnian** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**a Bosnian** ||
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Botswana** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Botswanan** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**a Tswana** ||
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Brazil** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Brazilian** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**a Brazilian** ||
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Britain** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**British** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**a Briton** ||
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Brunei** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Bruneian** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**a Bruneian** ||
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Bulgaria** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Bulgarian** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**a Bulgarian** ||
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Burkina** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Burkinese** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**a Burkinese** ||
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Burma (**//**official name**// **Myanmar)** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Burmese** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**a Burmese** ||
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Burundi** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Burundian** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**a Burundian** ||
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Cambodia** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Cambodian** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**a Cambodian** ||
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Cameroon** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Cameroonian** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**a Cameroonian** ||
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Canada** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Canadian** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**a Canadian** ||
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Cape Verde Islands** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Cape Verdean** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**a Cape Verdean** ||
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Chad** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Chadian** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**a Chadian** ||
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Chile** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Chilean** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**a Chilean** ||
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**China** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Chinese** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**a Chinese** ||
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Colombia** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Colombian** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**a Colombian** ||
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Congo** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Congolese** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**a Congolese** ||
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Costa Rica** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Costa Rican** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**a Costa Rican** ||
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Croatia** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Croat** //**or**// **Croatian** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**a Croat** //**or**// **a Croatian** ||
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Cuba** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Cuban** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**a Cuban** ||
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Cyprus** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Cypriot** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**a Cypriot** ||
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Czech Republic** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Czech** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**a Czech** ||
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Denmark** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Danish** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**a Dane** ||
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Djibouti** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Djiboutian** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**a Djiboutian** ||
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Dominica** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Dominican** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**a Dominican** ||
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Dominican Republic** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Dominican** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**a Dominican** ||
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Ecuador** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Ecuadorean** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**an Ecuadorean** ||
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Egypt** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Egyptian** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**an Egyptian** ||
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**El Salvador** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Salvadorean** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**a Salvadorean** ||
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**England** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**English** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**an Englishman, an Englishwoman** ||
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Eritrea** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Eritrean** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**an Eritrean** ||
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Estonia** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Estonian** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**an Estonian** ||
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Ethiopia** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Ethiopian** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**an Ethiopian** ||
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Fiji** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Fijian** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**a Fijian** ||
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Finland** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Finnish** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**a Finn** ||
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**France** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**French** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**a Frenchman, a Frenchwoman** ||
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Gabon** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Gabonese** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**a Gabonese** ||
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Gambia, the** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Gambian** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**a Gambian** ||
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Georgia** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Georgian** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**a Georgian** ||
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Germany** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**German** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**a German** ||
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Ghana** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Ghanaian** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**a Ghanaian** ||
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Greece** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Greek** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**a Greek** ||
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Grenada** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Grenadian** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**a Grenadian** ||
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Guatemala** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Guatemalan** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**a Guatemalan** ||
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Guinea** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Guinean** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**a Guinean** ||
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Guyana** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Guyanese** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**a Guyanese** ||
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Haiti** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Haitian** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**a Haitian** ||
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Holland (**//**also**// **Netherlands)** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Dutch** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**a Dutchman, a Dutchwoman** ||
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Honduras** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Honduran** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**a Honduran** ||
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Hungary** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Hungarian** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**a Hungarian** ||
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Iceland** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Icelandic** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**an Icelander** ||
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**India** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Indian** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**an Indian** ||
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Indonesia** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Indonesian** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**an Indonesian** ||
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Iran** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Iranian** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**an Iranian** ||
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Iraq** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Iraqi** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**an Iraqi** ||
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Ireland, Republic of** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Irish** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**an Irishman, an Irishwoman** ||
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Israel** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Israeli** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**an Israeli** ||
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Italy** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Italian** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**an Italian** ||
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Jamaica** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Jamaican** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**a Jamaican** ||
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Japan** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Japanese** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**a Japanese** ||
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Jordan** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Jordanian** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**a Jordanian** ||
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Kazakhstan** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Kazakh** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**a Kazakh** ||
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Kenya** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Kenyan** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**a Kenyan** ||
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Korea** //**see**// **North Korea, South Korea** ||  ||   ||
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Kuwait** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Kuwaiti** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**a Kuwaiti** ||
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Laos** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Laotian** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**a Laotian** ||
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Latvia** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Latvian** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**a Latvian** ||
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Lebanon** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Lebanese** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**a Lebanese** ||
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Liberia** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Liberian** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**a Liberian** ||
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Libya** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Libyan** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**a Libyan** ||
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Liechtenstein** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**-** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**a Liechtensteiner** ||
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Lithuania** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Lithuanian** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**a Lithuanian** ||
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Luxembourg** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**-** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**a Luxembourger** ||
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Macedonia** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Macedonian** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**a Macedonian** ||
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Madagascar** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Malagasay** //**or**// **Madagascan** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**a Malagasay** //**or**// **a Madagascan** ||
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Malawi** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Malawian** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**a Malawian** ||
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Malaysia** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Malaysian** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**a Malaysian** ||
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Maldives** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Maldivian** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**a Maldivian** ||
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Mali** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Malian** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**a Malian** ||
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Malta** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Maltese** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**a Maltese** ||
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Mauritania** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Mauritanian** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**a Mauritanian** ||
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Mauritius** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Mauritian** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**a Mauritian** ||
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Mexico** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Mexican** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**a Mexican** ||
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Moldova** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Moldovan** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**a Moldovan** ||
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Monaco** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Monégasque** //**or**// **Monacan** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**a Monégasque** //**or**// **a Monacan** ||
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Mongolia** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Mongolian** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**a Mongolian** ||
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Montenegro** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Montenegrin** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**a Montenegrin** ||
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Morocco** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Moroccan** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**a Moroccan** ||
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Mozambique** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Mozambican** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**a Mozambican** ||
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Myanmar** //**see**// **Burma** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**-** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**-** ||
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Namibia** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Namibian** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**a Namibian** ||
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Nepal** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Nepalese** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**a Nepalese** ||
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Netherlands, the (**//**see**// **Holland)** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Dutch** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**a Dutchman, a Dutchwoman,** //**or**// **a Netherlander** ||
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**New Zealand** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**-** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**a New Zealander** ||
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Nicaragua** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Nicaraguan** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**a Nicaraguan** ||
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Niger** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Nigerien** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**a Nigerien** ||
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Nigeria** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Nigerian** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**a Nigerian** ||
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**North Korea** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**North Korean** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**a North Korean** ||
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Norway** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Norwegian** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**a Norwegian** ||
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Oman** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Omani** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**an Omani** ||
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Pakistan** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Pakistani** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**a Pakistani** ||
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Panama** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Panamanian** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**a Panamanian** ||
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Papua New Guinea** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Papua New Guinean** //**or**// **Guinean** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**a Papua New Guinean** //**or**// **a Guinean** ||
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Paraguay** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Paraguayan** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**a Paraguayan** ||
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Peru** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Peruvian** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**a Peruvian** ||
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**the Philippines** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Philippine** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**a Filipino** ||
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Poland** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Polish** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**a Pole** ||
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Portugal** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Portuguese** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**a Portuguese** ||
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Qatar** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Qatari** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**a Qatari** ||
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Romania** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Romanian** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**a Romanian** ||
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Russia** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Russian** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**a Russian** ||
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Rwanda** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Rwandan** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**a Rwandan** ||
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Saudi Arabia** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Saudi Arabian** //**or**// **Saudi** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**a Saudi Arabian** //**or**// **a Saudi** ||
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Scotland** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Scottish** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**a Scot** ||
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Senegal** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Senegalese** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**a Senegalese** ||
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Serbia** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Serb** //**or**// **Serbian** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**a Serb** //**or**// **a Serbian** ||
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Seychelles, the** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Seychellois** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**a Seychellois** ||
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Sierra Leone** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Sierra Leonian** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**a Sierra Leonian** ||
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Singapore** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Singaporean** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**a Singaporean** ||
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Slovakia** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Slovak** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**a Slovak** ||
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Slovenia** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Slovene** //**or**// **Slovenian** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**a Slovene** //**or**// **a Slovenian** ||
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Solomon Islands** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**-** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**a Solomon Islander** ||
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Somalia** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Somali** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**a Somali** ||
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**South Africa** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**South African** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**a South African** ||
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**South Korea** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**South Korean** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**a South Korean** ||
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Spain** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Spanish** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**a Spaniard** ||
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Sri Lanka** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Sri Lankan** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**a Sri Lankan** ||
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Sudan** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Sudanese** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**a Sudanese** ||
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Suriname** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Surinamese** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**a Surinamer** //**or**// **a Surinamese** ||
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Swaziland** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Swazi** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**a Swazi** ||
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Sweden** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Swedish** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**a Swede** ||
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Switzerland** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Swiss** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**a Swiss** ||
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Syria** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Syrian** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**a Syrian** ||
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Taiwan** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Taiwanese** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**a Taiwanese** ||
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Tajikistan** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Tajik** //**or**// **Tadjik** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**a Tajik** //**or**// **a Tadjik** ||
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Tanzania** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Tanzanian** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**a Tanzanian** ||
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Thailand** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Thai** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**a Thai** ||
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Togo** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Togolese** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**a Togolese** ||
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Trinidad and Tobago** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Trinidadian
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Tunisia** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Tunisian** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**a Tunisian** ||
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Turkey** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Turkish** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**a Turk** ||
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Turkmenistan** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Turkmen** //**or**// **Turkoman** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**a Turkmen** //**or**// **a Turkoman** ||
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Tuvali** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Tuvaluan** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**a Tuvaluan** ||
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Uganda** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Ugandan** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**a Ugandan** ||
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Ukraine** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Ukrainian** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**a Ukrainian** ||
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**United Arab Emirates (UAE)** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**-** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**-** ||
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**United Kingdom (UK)** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**British** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**a Briton** ||
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**United States of America (USA)** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**-** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**a citizen of the USA** ||
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Uruguay** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Uruguayan** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**a Uruguayan** ||
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Uzbekistan** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Uzbek** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**an Uzbek** ||
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Vanuata** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Vanuatuan** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**a Vanuatuan** ||
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Vatican City** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**-** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**-** ||
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Venezuela** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Venezuelan** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**a Venezuelan** ||
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Vietnam** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Vietnamese** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**a Vietnamese** ||
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Wales** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Welsh** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**a Welshman, a Welshwoman** ||
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Western Samoa** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Western Samoan** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**a Western Samoan** ||
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Yemen** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Yemeni** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**a Yemeni** ||
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Yugoslavia** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Yugoslav** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**a Yugoslav** ||
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Zaire** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Zaïrean** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**a Zaïrean** ||
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Zambia** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Zambian** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**a Zambian** ||
 * <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Zimbabwe** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**Zimbabwean** || <span style="font-family: Arial,serif;">**a Zimbabwean** ||

<span style="color: #ff00ff; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 12pt;"> <span style="color: #008080; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 12pt;"> An **abbreviation** (from __[|Latin]__ //brevis//, meaning "short") is a shortened form of a __[|word]__ or __[|phrase]__. Usually, but not always, it consists of a letter or group of letters taken from the word or phrase. For example, the word //abbreviation// can itself be represented by the abbreviation //abbr.// or //abbrev.// In strict analysis, abbreviations should not be confused with __[|contractions]__ or __[|acronyms]__ (including initialisms), with which they share some __[|semantic]__ and __[|phonetic]__ functions, though all three are connoted by the term "abbreviation" in loose parlance.__[|[1]]__<span style="font-family: Century Gothic,serif;">:p167. However, normally acronyms are regarded as a subgroup of abbreviations (e.g. by the Council of Science Editors).

<span style="color: #008080; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 12pt;"> History
<span style="color: #008080; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 12pt;">Abbreviation has been used as long as phonetic script existed, in some senses actually being more common in early literacy, where spelling out a whole word was often avoided, initial letters commonly being used to represent words in specific application. By classical Greece and Rome, the reduction of words to single letters was still normal, but no longer the default. An increase in literacy has, historically, sometimes spawned a trend toward abbreviation. The standardization of English in the 15th through 17th centuries included such a growth in the use of abbreviation__[|[2]]__. At first, abbreviations were sometimes represented with various suspension signs, not only periods. For example, specific phoneme sets like "er" were dropped from words and replaced with ɔ, like "mastɔ" instead of "master" or exacɔbate instead of "exacerbate". While this seems trivial, it was symptomatic of an attempt by people manually reproducing academic texts to reduce their copy time. An example from the Oxford University Register, 1503: Mastɔ subwardenɔ y ɔmēde me to you. And wherɔ y wrot to you the last wyke that y trouyde itt good to differrɔ thelectionɔ ovɔ to quīdenaɔ tinitatis y have be thougħt me synɔ that itt woll be thenɔ a bowte mydsomɔ.

<span style="color: #ff00ff; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 12pt;">In the 1830s in the United States, starting with Boston, abbreviation became a __[|fad]__. For example, during the growth of __[|philological]____[|J. R. R. Tolkien]__ and his friend __[|C. S. Lewis]__, and other members of the __[|Oxford]__ literary group known as the __[|Inklings]__, are sometimes cited as symptomatic of this. Likewise, a century earlier in Boston, a fad of abbreviation started that swept the United States, with the globally popular term __[|OK]__ generally credited as a remnant of its influence.__<span style="font-family: Century Gothic,serif;">[|[3]][|[4]] __ linguistic theory in academic Britain, abbreviating became very trendy. The use of abbreviation for the names of "Father of modern etymology"

After __[|World War II]__, the British greatly reduced their use of the full stop and other punctuation points after abbreviations in at least semi-formal writing, while the Americans more readily kept such use until more recently, and still maintain it more than Britons. The classic example, considered by their American counterparts quite curious, was the maintenance of the internal comma in a British organization of secret agents called the "Special Operations, Executive" — "S.O.,E" — which is not found in histories written after about 1960.

But before that, many Britons were more scrupulous at maintaining the French form. In __[|French]__, the period only follows an abbreviation if the last letter in the abbreviation is //not// the last letter of its antecedent: "M." is the abbreviation for "monsieur" while "Mme" is that for "madame". Like many other cross-__[|channel]__ linguistic acquisitions, many Britons readily took this up and followed this rule themselves, while the Americans took a simpler rule and applied it rigorously. Over the years, however, the lack of convention in some style guides has made it difficult to determine which two-word abbreviations should be abbreviated with periods and which should not. The U.S. media tend to abbreviate two-word abbreviations like United States (U.S.), but not personal computer (PC) or television (TV). Many British publications have gradually done away with the use of periods in abbreviations completely.

Minimization of punctuation in typewritten matter became economically desirable in the 1960s and 1970s for the many users of carbon-film __[|ribbons]__, since a period or comma consumed the same length of non-reusable expensive ribbon as did a capital letter.

<span style="color: #008080; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 12pt;">Style conventions in English
<span style="color: #008080; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 12pt;">In __[|modern English]__ there are several conventions for abbreviations and the choice may be confusing. The only rule universally accepted is that one should be //consistent,// and to make this easier, publishers express their prefe rences in a [|style guide]. Questions which arise include those in the following subsections.

<span style="color: #008080; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 12pt;">Lowercase letters
<span style="color: #008080; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 12pt;">If the original word was capitalized, then the first letter of its abbreviation should retain the capital, for example Lev. for Leviticus. When abbreviating words spelled with lower case letters, there is no need for capitalization.

<span style="color: #008080; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 12pt;">Periods (full stops) and spaces
<span style="color: #008080; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 12pt;">A period (full stop) is sometimes written after an abbreviated word, but there are exceptions and a general lack of consensus about when this should happen. There is some confusion over the strict distinction between an abbreviation (a word shortened by omission of its //end// part) — requiring a full point (or full stop or period) — and a __[|contraction]__ (a word or compound shortened by omission of a //middle// part) — which does not need a full point or period. __[|American English]__ usage is less strict about this distinction and thus more likely to conclude a contraction, e.g., //Jr.// for "Junior" with a period. There is never a period (full stop) between letters of the same word. For example, "kilometer" is abbreviated as //km// and not as //k.m.//. However, "miles per hour" can be abbreviated by the acronym //m.p.h.// or, increasingly common, //mph//. In __[|British English]__, according to __[|Hart's Rules]__, the general rule is that abbreviations terminate with a full point (period), whereas contractions do not.__[|[1]]__<span style="font-family: Century Gothic,serif;">:p167 <span style="color: #008080; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 12pt;">In __[|American English]__, the period is usually added if the abbreviation might otherwise be interpreted as a word, but some American writers do not use a period here. Sometimes, periods are used for certain initialisms but not others; a notable instance in American English is to write __[|//United States//]__, __[|//European Union//]__, and __[|//United Nations//]__ as //U.S.//, //EU//, and //UN// respectively. A third standard removes the full stops from all abbreviations (both //"Saint"// and //"Street"// become //"St"//). The U.S. __[|Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices]__ advises that periods should not be used with abbreviations on road signs, except for cardinal directions as part of a destination name. (For example, //"Northwest Blvd"//, //"W. Jefferson"//, and //"PED XING"// all follow this recommendation.) __[|Acronyms]__ that were originally capitalized (with or without periods) but have since entered the vocabulary as generic words are no longer abbreviated with capital letters nor with any periods. Examples are __[|sonar]__, __[|radar]__, __[|lidar]__, __[|laser]__, and __[|scuba]__. Spaces are generally not used between single letter abbreviations of words in the same phrase, so one almost never encounters "U. S.". When an abbreviation appears at the end of a sentence, use only one period: The capital of the United States is Washington, D.C.
 * <span style="color: #008080; display: block; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 12pt; text-align: center;">**Example** || <span style="color: #008080; display: block; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 12pt; text-align: center;">**Category** || <span style="color: #008080; display: block; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 12pt; text-align: center;">**Short form** || <span style="color: #008080; display: block; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 12pt; text-align: center;">**Source** ||
 * <span style="color: #008080; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 12pt;">__[|Doctor]__ || <span style="color: #008080; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 12pt;">Contraction || <span style="color: #008080; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 12pt;">Dr || <span style="color: #008080; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 12pt;">D–r ||
 * <span style="color: #008080; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 12pt;">__[|Professor]__ || <span style="color: #008080; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 12pt;">Abbreviation || <span style="color: #008080; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 12pt;">Prof. || <span style="color: #008080; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 12pt;">Prof... ||
 * <span style="color: #008080; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 12pt;">The __[|Reverend]__ || <span style="color: #008080; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 12pt;">Contraction (or Abbreviation) || <span style="color: #008080; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 12pt;">Revd (or Rev.) || <span style="color: #008080; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 12pt;">Rev–d ||
 * <span style="color: #008080; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 12pt;">__[|The Right Honourable]__ || <span style="color: #008080; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 12pt;">Contraction and Abbreviation || <span style="color: #008080; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 12pt;">Rt Hon. || <span style="color: #008080; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 12pt;">R–t Hon... ||

<span style="color: #008080; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 12pt;">Plural forms
<span style="color: #008080; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 12pt;">To form the plural of an abbreviation, a number, or a capital letter used as a noun, simply add a lowercase //s// to the end. <span style="color: #008080; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 12pt;">When an abbreviation contains more than one full point, put the //s// after the final one.__[|[1]]__<span style="font-family: Century Gothic,serif;">:p175 <span style="color: #008080; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 12pt;">However, subject to any house style or consistency requirement, the same plurals may be rendered less formally as: <span style="color: #008080; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 12pt;">An apostrophe may be used in rare cases where clarity calls for it, for example when letters or symbols are referred to as objects.__[|[1]]__<span style="font-family: Century Gothic,serif;">:p.66 <span style="color: #008080; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 12pt;">However, the apostrophe can be dispensed with if the items are set in italics or quotes: <span style="color: #008080; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 12pt;">In Latin, and continuing to the derivative forms in European languages as well as English, single-letter abbreviations had the plural being a doubling of the letter for note-taking. Most of these deal with writing and publishing. A few longer abbreviations use this as well.
 * <span style="color: #008080; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 12pt;">A group of MPs
 * <span style="color: #008080; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 12pt;">The roaring '20s
 * <span style="color: #008080; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 12pt;">Mind your Ps and Qs
 * <span style="color: #008080; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 12pt;">Ph.D.s
 * <span style="color: #008080; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 12pt;">M.Phil.s
 * <span style="color: #008080; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 12pt;">the d.t.s
 * <span style="color: #008080; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 12pt;">PhDs
 * <span style="color: #008080; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 12pt;">MPhils
 * <span style="color: #008080; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 12pt;">the DTs (//delirium tremens//). (This is the recommended form in the New Oxford Dictionary for Writers and Editors.)
 * <span style="color: #008080; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 12pt;">The x's of the equation
 * <span style="color: #008080; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 12pt;">Dot the i's and cross the t's
 * <span style="color: #008080; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 12pt;">The //x//s of the equation
 * <span style="color: #008080; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 12pt;">Dot the 'i's and cross the 't's
 * <span style="color: #008080; display: block; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 12pt; text-align: center;">**Singular abbreviation** || <span style="color: #008080; display: block; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 12pt; text-align: center;">**Singular Word** || <span style="color: #008080; display: block; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 12pt; text-align: center;">**Plural abbreviation** || <span style="color: #008080; display: block; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 12pt; text-align: center;">**Plural Word** || <span style="color: #008080; display: block; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 12pt; text-align: center;">**Discipline** ||
 * <span style="color: #008080; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 12pt;">d. || <span style="color: #008080; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 12pt;">didot || <span style="color: #008080; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 12pt;">dd. || <span style="color: #008080; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 12pt;">didots || <span style="color: #008080; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 12pt;">typography ||
 * <span style="color: #008080; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 12pt;">f. || <span style="color: #008080; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 12pt;">following line or page || <span style="color: #008080; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 12pt;">ff. || <span style="color: #008080; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 12pt;">following lines or pages || <span style="color: #008080; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 12pt;">notes ||
 * <span style="color: #008080; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 12pt;">h. || <span style="color: #008080; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 12pt;">hand || <span style="color: #008080; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 12pt;">hh. || <span style="color: #008080; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 12pt;">hands || <span style="color: #008080; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 12pt;">horse height ||
 * <span style="color: #008080; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 12pt;">l. || <span style="color: #008080; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 12pt;">line || <span style="color: #008080; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 12pt;">ll. || <span style="color: #008080; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 12pt;">lines || <span style="color: #008080; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 12pt;">notes ||
 * <span style="color: #008080; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 12pt;">MS || <span style="color: #008080; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 12pt;">manuscript || <span style="color: #008080; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 12pt;">MSS || <span style="color: #008080; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 12pt;">manuscripts || <span style="color: #008080; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 12pt;">notes ||
 * <span style="color: #008080; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 12pt;">op. || <span style="color: #008080; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 12pt;">opus || <span style="color: #008080; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 12pt;">opp. || <span style="color: #008080; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 12pt;">opera || <span style="color: #008080; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 12pt;">notes ||
 * <span style="color: #008080; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 12pt;">p. || <span style="color: #008080; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 12pt;">page || <span style="color: #008080; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 12pt;">pp. || <span style="color: #008080; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 12pt;">pages || <span style="color: #008080; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 12pt;">notes ||
 * <span style="color: #008080; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 12pt;">P. || <span style="color: #008080; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 12pt;">pope || <span style="color: #008080; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 12pt;">PP. || <span style="color: #008080; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 12pt;">popes || <span style="color: #ff00ff; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 12pt;"> ||
 * <span style="color: #008080; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 12pt;">s. (or §) || <span style="color: #008080; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 12pt;">section || <span style="color: #008080; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 12pt;">ss. (or §§) || <span style="color: #008080; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 12pt;">sections || <span style="color: #008080; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 12pt;">notes ||
 * <span style="color: #008080; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 12pt;">v. || <span style="color: #008080; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 12pt;">volume || <span style="color: #008080; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 12pt;">vv. || <span style="color: #008080; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 12pt;">volumes || <span style="color: #008080; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 12pt;">notes ||

<span style="color: #008080; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 12pt;">United States
<span style="color: #008080; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 12pt;"><span style="color: #ff00ff; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 12pt;">Publications based in the U.S. tend to follow the style guides of the __[|Chicago Manual of Style]__ and the __[|Associated Press]__.<span style="font-family: Century Gothic,serif;">[ __[|//verification needed//]__<span style="font-family: Century Gothic,serif;">] __[|U.S. Government]__ follows a style guide published by the __[|U.S. Government Printing Office]__. The However, there is some inconsistency in abbreviation styles, as they are not rigorously defined by style guides. Some two-word abbreviations, like "United Nations", are abbreviated with uppercase letters and periods, and others, like "personal computer" (PC) and "compact disc" (CD), are not; rather, they are typically abbreviated without periods and in uppercase letters. A third variation is to use lowercase letters with periods; this is used by Time Magazine in abbreviating "public relations" (p.r.). Moreover, even three-word abbreviations (most U.S. publications use uppercase abbreviations without periods) are sometimes not consistently abbreviated, even within the same article. __[|//The New York Times//]__ is unique in having a consistent style by always abbreviating with periods: P.C., I.B.M., P.R. This is in contrast with the trend of British publications to omit periods for convenience.

<span style="color: #008080; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 12pt;">United Kingdom
<span style="color: #008080; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 12pt;">Many British publications follow some of these guidelines in abbreviation:
 * <span style="color: #008080; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 12pt;">For the sake of convenience, many British publications, including the __[|BBC]__ and __[|//The Guardian//]__, have completely done away with the use of full stops or periods in all abbreviations. These include:
 * <span style="color: #008080; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 12pt;">Social titles, like Ms or Mr (though these would usually not have had full stops — see above) Capt, Prof, //etc.;//
 * <span style="color: #008080; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 12pt;">Two-letter abbreviations for countries (//"US"//, not //"U.S."//);
 * <span style="color: #008080; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 12pt;">Abbreviations beyond three letters (full caps for all except initialisms);
 * <span style="color: #008080; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 12pt;">Words seldom abbreviated with lower case letters (//"PR"//, instead of //"p.r."//, or //"pr"//)
 * <span style="color: #008080; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 12pt;">Names (//"FW de Klerk"//, //"GB Whiteley"//, //"Park JS"//). A notable exception is __[|//The Economist//]__ which writes //"Mr F. W. de Klerk"//.
 * <span style="color: #008080; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 12pt;">Scientific units (see Measurement below).
 * <span style="color: #008080; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 12pt;">__[|Acronyms]__ are often referred to with only the first letter of the abbreviation capitalised. For instance, the __[|North Atlantic Treaty Organisation]__ can be abbreviated as //"Nato"// or //"NATO"//, and __[|Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome]__ as //"Sars"// or //"SARS"// (compare with //"//__[|//laser//]__//"// which has made the full transition to an English word and is rarely capitalised at all).
 * <span style="color: #008080; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 12pt;">__[|Initialisms]__ are always written in capitals; for example the //"British Broadcasting Corporation"// is abbreviated to //"BBC"//, never //"Bbc"//. An initialism is similar to acronym but is not pronounced as a word.
 * <span style="color: #008080; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 12pt;">When abbreviating scientific units, no space is added between the number and unit (100mph, 100m, 10cm, 10°C). (This is contrary to the SI standard, see below.)

<span style="color: #008080; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 12pt;">Miscellaneous and general rules

 * <span style="color: #008080; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 12pt;">A doubled letter also appears in abbreviations of some Welsh names, as in __[|Welsh]__ the double "l" is a separate sound: "Ll. George" for (British prime minister) __[|David Lloyd George]__.
 * <span style="color: #008080; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 12pt;">Some titles, such as "Reverend" and "Honourable", are spelt out when preceded by "the", rather than as "Rev." or "Hon." respectively. This is true for most British publications, and some in the United States.
 * <span style="color: #008080; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 12pt;">A repeatedly-used abbreviation should be spelt out for identification on its first occurrence in a written or spoken passage. Abbreviations likely to be unfamiliar to many readers should be avoided.

<span style="color: #008080; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 12pt;">Measurement
<span style="color: #008080; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 12pt;">The __[|International System of Units]__ (SI) defines a set of base units, from which other "derived" units may be obtained. The abbreviations, or more accurately "symbols" (using Roman letters, Greek letters in the case of __[|ohm]__ and __[|micro]__ and other characters in the case of __[|degrees celsius]__) for these units are also clearly defined together with a set of prefixes for which there are also abbreviations or symbols. There should never be a period after or inside a unit; both '10 k.m.' and '10 k.m' are wrong — the only correct form is '10 km' (only followed with a period when at the end of a sentence). A period "within" a compound unit denotes multiplication of the base units on each side of it. Ideally, this period should be raised to the centre of the line, but often it is not. For instance, '5 ms' means 5 millisecond(s), whereas '5 m.s' means 5 metre·second(s). The "m.s" here is a compound unit formed from the product of two fundamental SI units — metre and second. However, the __[|middle dot]__ symbol (·, unicode U+00B7, HTML &middot;) is the preferred way to represent compound units when available, e.g. "5 m·s". There should always be a (non-breaking) space between the number and the unit — '25 km' is correct, and '25km' is incorrect. In Section 5.3.3. of __[|//The International System of Units (SI)//]__, the __[|International Bureau of Weights and Measures (BIPM)]__ states "The numerical value always precedes the unit, and a space is always used to separate the unit from the number. … The only exceptions to this rule are for the unit symbols for degree, minute, and second for plane angle."__[|[5]]__ The __[|case of letters]__ (uppercase or lowercase) has meaning in the SI system, and case should never be changed in a misguided attempt to follow an abbreviation style. For example, "10 S" denotes 10 siemens (a unit of conductance), while "10 s" denotes 10 seconds. Any unit named after a person is denoted by a symbol with an upper case first letter (S, Pa, A, V, N, Wb, W), but spelt out in full in lower case, (siemens, pascal, ampere, volt, newton, weber and watt). By contrast g, l, m, s, cd, ha represent gram, litre, metre, second, candela and hectare respectively. The one slight exception to this rule is that the symbol for litre is allowed to be L to help avoid confusion with an upper case //i// or a __[|one]__ in some __[|typefaces]__ — compare l, I, and 1. Likewise, the abbreviations of the prefixes denoting powers of ten are case-sensitive: m (milli) represents a thousandth, but M (mega) represents a million, so by inadvertent changes of case one may introduce (in this example) an error of a factor of 1 000 000 000. When a unit is written in full, the whole unit is written in lowercase, including the prefix: millivolt for mV, nanometre for nm, gigacandela for Gcd. The above rules, if followed, ensure that the SI system is always unambiguous, so for instance mK denotes millikelvin, MK denotes megakelvin, K.m denotes kelvin.metre, and km denotes kilometre. Forms such as k.m and Km are ill-formed and technically meaningless in the SI system, although the intended meaning might be inferred from the context.

<span style="color: #008080; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 12pt;">Syllabic abbreviation
<span style="color: #008080; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 12pt;">A **syllabic abbreviation** is an **<span style="font-family: Century Gothic,serif;">abbreviation ** formed from (usually) initial __[|syllables]__ of several __[|words]__, such as __[|//Interpol//]__ = //**Inter**////national// + //**pol**////ice//. Syllabic abbreviations are usually written using __[|lower case]__, sometimes starting with a __[|capital letter]__, and are always pronounced as words rather than letter by letter. Syllabic abbreviations should be distinguished from __[|portmanteaus]__.

<span style="color: #008080; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 12pt;">Different languages
<span style="color: #008080; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 12pt;">Syllabic abbreviations are not widely used in __[|English]__ or __[|French]__. The United States Navy, however, often uses syllabic abbreviations, as described below. On the other hand, they prevailed in Germany under the __[|Nazis]__ and in the Soviet Union for naming the plethora of new bureaucratic organizations. For example, __[|//Gestapo//]__ stands for //**Ge**////heime// //**Sta**////ats-////**Po**////lizei//, or "secret state police". Similarly, __[|//Comintern//]__ stands for the __[|//Communist International//]__. This has caused syllabic abbreviations to have negative connotation, notwithstanding that such abbreviations were used in Germany even before the Nazis came to power, e.g., __[|//Schupo//]__ for //Schutzpolizei//. Syllabic abbreviations were also typical for the __[|German language]__ used in the __[|German Democratic Republic]__, e.g. __[|//Stasi//]__ for //Staatssicherheit// ("state security", the secret police) or //Vopo// for //Volkspolizist// ("people's policeman"). East __[|Asian]__ languages whose writing uses __[|Chinese]__-originated __[|ideograms]__ instead of an alphabet form abbreviations similarly by using key __[|characters]__ from a term or phrase. For example, in __[|Japanese]__ the term for the __[|United Nations]__, //kokusai rengō// (国際連合) is often abbreviated to //kokuren// (国連). (Such abbreviations are called __[|ryakugo]__ (略語) in __[|Japanese]__). The syllabic abbreviation is frequently used for universities: for instance, //Běidà// (北大) for //Běijīng Dàxué// (北京大学, __[|Peking University]__) and //Tōdai// (東大) for //Tōkyō daigaku// (東京大学, __[|University of Tokyo]__).

<span style="color: #008080; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 12pt;"> External links

 * <span style="color: #008080; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 12pt;">__[|Abbreviations.com]__ — a database of acronyms and abbreviations
 * <span style="color: #008080; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 12pt;">__[|Acronym Finder]__ — a database of acronyms and abbreviations (over 750,000 entries)
 * <span style="color: #008080; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 12pt;">__[|All Acronyms]__ — a database of acronyms, initialisms and abbreviations (over 750,000 entries)
 * <span style="color: #008080; font-family: 'Comic Sans MS',cursive; font-size: 12pt;">__[|AcronymCreator.net]__ - a language tool to make new meaningful acronyms and abbreviations

In //semiotics//, (the investigation of apprehension, prediction and meaning; how it is that we apprehend the world, make predictions, and develop meaning) a **sign** is generally defined as “something that stands for something else, to someone in some capacity” (Marcel Danesi and Paul Perron, “Analyzing Cultures”). It may be understood as a discrete unit of meaning. Signs are not limited to words but also include images, gestures, scents, tastes, textures, sounds - essentially all of the ways in which information can be processed and communicated by any sentient, reasoning mind.
 * <span style="color: #ff006b; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 26pt;">SIGNS **

Signs are elements that can be related together logically in a variety of different ways. Within semiotics there are two general schools of thought on the nature of sign relationships: those that believe signs are reducible to dyadic logic, and those that believe that signs require triadic relationships. Ferdinand de Saussure famously defined a sign: “the linguistic sign unites not a thing and a name, but a concept and a sound-image. The latter is not the material of sound, the impression that it makes on our senses: the sound-image is sensory, and if I happen to call it ‘material,’ it is only in that sense, and by way of opposing it to other terms of the assocation, the //concept//, which is generally more abstract.” (1922: 98; English trans. 1959:66) “**I call the combination of a concept and a sound-image a //__sign__.//** Ambiguity would disappear if the three notions involved where designated by three names, each suggesting and opposing the others. I propose to retain the word sign to designate the whole, and to replaced concept and sound-image with signified and signifier; the last two terms have the advantage of indicating the opposition that seperates them from one another and from the whole of which they are parts.”
 * Dyadic Signs – **

Signs are composed of two elements:

1. A sound image (such as a word or a visual representation) 2. Concept for which the sound-image stands The signifier is the sound-image part of the sign The signified is the concept part of the sign. A sign is both a signifier and signified. //(sound-image)// + //(concept)//
 * (sign = sound image + concept) **
 * Signifier **
 * Signified **
 * Signifier ** + **Signified**



long hair = hippy tattoo = individualist bow tie = professor/nerd string tie = hick/cowboy back pack = student Charles Sanders Peirce //(1839-1914)// An American philosopher who founded contemporary semiotics, a contemporary of Saussure, proposed a different theory of signs. Signs establish meaning by means of relating other signs together. ▪ **object** - the concept that the sign encodes ▪ **representamen** - the perceivable part of the sign ▪ **interpretant** - the meaning one obtains from the sign ** Object ** **Representamen Interpretant**
 * Triadic Signs – **
 * He identified three distinct parts to a sign: **
 * Sign = unity between object + representamen + interpretant **

Peirce's triadic notion of signs requires that relationships between one sign and another have to be mediated by a third sign. In this view, the mediating sign is the only way to express the nature of the relationship between the signs. Excluding this third sign limits the possible relational expression to simple co-occurrence or similarity. No sign is also a sign. Since we are sign-giving and sign-interpreting animals and since for much of our lives we are involved with this kind of activity, no signs or absent signs also communicate something to us.
 * No sign as Sign **

We feel that when we give a sign to someone, such as saying “hello”, we should get an appropriate response, some form of greeting or reply. When we don’t get the response we expect, we take it as a sign of something. It isn’t always possible to determine what absent signs means. Phone rings, but no caller prankster/pervert
 * Area ** **Meaning**

Says nothing wrong number

No reply to letter rejection, lack of decision, letter misplaced A representation of an object or concept based on an agreed upon convention. Something with cultural significance. A symbol can be a material object whose shape or origin is related, by nature or convention, to the thing it represents:
 * **<span style="color: #ff0000; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 16pt;">Symbols **__ (http://www.wordiq.com/definition/Symbol) __
 * Nature of symbols **

for instance, the [|scepter] is a traditional **symbol** of [|royal] power.

A **symbol** can also be a more or less conventional [|image] (i.e. an [|icon] ), or a detail of an image, or even a [|pattern] or [|color] : for example, the olive branch in [|heraldry] represents peace, and the color [|red] is often used as a symbol for [|socialist] movements, especially [|communism].

Symbols can also be immaterial entities like sounds, words and gestures. The ringing of [|gongs] and [|bells], and the banging of a judge's [|gavel] , often have conventional meanings in certain contexts; and [|bowing] is a common way to indicate respect. In fact, every word in a natural [|language] is a symbol for some concept or relationship between concepts.

A symbol is usually recognized only within some specific culture, religion, or discipline, but a few hundred symbols are now recognized internationally. It is human beings’ ability to manipulate symbols that allows them to explore the relationships between ideas, things, concepts, and qualities - far beyond the explorations of which any other species on earth is capable. The discipline of [|semiotics] studies symbols and symbol systems in general; [|semantics] is specifically concerned with the main meaning of words.
 * Use of symbols **

Literary works are often admired for their artful use of [|symbolism], i.e. the use of words, phrases and situations to evoke ideas and feelings beyond their plain interpretations; these uses are the subject of [|literary semiotics]. Religious and metaphysical writings are also known for their use of [|esoteric] symbolism. [|Alchemical] writings made extensive use of symbols for spiritual and chemical processes (which they also saw as symbols of each other). The interpretation of dreams as symbols of one's experiences is a main feature of [|Freudian] [|psychoanalysis] and [|Jungian]  [|analytical psychology]. A pictogram or pictograph is a symbol which represents a concept or an object by illustration. Early written characters ( [|symbols] ) were based on pictograms and [|ideograms], it is commonly believed that pictograms appeared before ideograms. They were used by various ancient [|cultures] (in [|Egypt], [|Spain] , [|Crete] ) around [|5000 BC] and are still in use as a main type of writing in some primitive cultures in [|Africa] , [|America] and [|Oceania]. Pictograms remain in common use today; for example the symbols on public [|toilets] for "men" and "women."
 * **<span style="color: #ff0000; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 16pt;">Pictograms **

Because pictograms do not depend on [|language], places such as [|airports] and [|train stations] use them for [|signposting]. However, they can depend on culture—in the case of toilets, in some cultures men commonly wear dress-like clothing.

A standard set of pictograms was defined in the international [|standard] [|//ISO//] 7001: Public Information Symbols. The pictograms or “symbol signs” used by the United States Department of Transportation (DOT) are intended to convey information useful to travelers without resorting to verbal language. Among these pictograms, for example, are the now-familiar graphics representing “Toilets” and “Telephone.” Since their introduction in 1974, they have found widespread use in airports, train stations, hotels and other public places not only in the United States but also around the world. Warning sign Priority Sign Prohibition Sign In countries or regions where two or more languages are used the typical [|traffic sign] is very often a pictogram with no writing on it. This is the case for much of [|Europe] and several parts of [|Canada]. Many of these signs, however, offer an abstract symbol instead of a picture, and they cannot be considered true pictograms. [] A corporate logo is a component of a brand identity. The shape, color, typeface, etc. should be distinctly different from others in a similar market.
 * **<span style="color: #ff0000; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 16pt;">Logos **

The most effective logos should be recognizable instantly, and should evoke some sort of **emotional response**. Well designed logos work well at many sizes, and even in one color.

Some well-known examples are: Apple computer's apple with a bite out of it started out as a rainbow of color, and has been reduced to a single color without any loss of recognition. Coca Cola's script is known the world over, but is best associated with the color red; its main competitor, Pepsi has taken the color blue, although they have abandoned their script logo. IBM, also known as "Big Blue" has simplified their logo over the years, and their name. What started as International Business Machines is now just "IBM" and the color blue has been a signature in their unifying campaign as they have moved to become an IT services company.

There are some other logos that must be mentioned when evaluating what the mark means to the consumer. Automotive brands can be summed up simply with their corporate logo- from the Chevrolet "Bow Tie" mark to the circle marks of VW, Mercedes and BMW, each has stood for a brand and clearly differentiated the product line.

Other logos that have become global: the Nike "Swoosh" and the Adidas "Three stripes" are two well-known brands that are defined by their corporate logo. When Phil Knight started Nike, he was hoping to find a mark as recognizable as the Adidas stripes, which also provided reinforcement to the shoe. He hired a young student (Caroline Davidson) to do his logo, paying her $35 for what has become one of the most well known marks in the world (she was later compensated again by the company). Corporate identities today are often developed by large firms who specialize in this type of work. However, Paul Rand is considered the father of corporate identity and his work has been seminal in launching this field. Some famous examples of his work were the UPS package with a string (recently updated) IBM and many others.

While large corporations spend hundreds of thousands of dollars to update and implement their logos, many small businesses will turn to local graphic designers to do a corporate logo. An interesting case is the refinement of the FedEx logo, where the brand consultants convinced the company to shorten their corporate name and logo from "Federal Express" to the popular abbreviation "Fed Ex". Besides creating a much stronger, shorter brand name, they reduced the amount of color used on vehicles (planes, trucks) and saved hundreds of thousands of dollars in paint costs. Note also, the right pointing arrow in the new logo is a subliminal hint of motion.

A **logotype** is a graphic element which uniquely identifies corporations, products, services, institutions, agencies, associations, events, or any kind of organizations in order to differentiate publicly the owner of the logotype from other entities. A logotype is really a brandname set in a special typeface/font arranged in a particular, but legible, way. At the end of this handout there are true logotypes, whereas the others including non-letter graphics of some kind usually can be described as logos. The "Canon" logotype is a name in special typeface or font//.// The "United Airlines" logotype is an emblem and a name. The uniqueness of a logotype is of utmost importance to avoid confusion in the marketplace, among clients, suppliers, users, affiliates and the general public. Therefore, once designed, a logotype should be registered as a graphic [|trademark], so that no other can use it, and no other can try to stop its use by the owner. Duly protected, a logotype can become an asset of great value.

Sometimes a [|//slogan//] is included in the logotype. If the slogan appears always in the logotype, and in the same graphic shape, it can be considered as part of the logotype. Otherwise, it should be seen as a different element, used to reinforce the identity of the owner, together with the logotype.

The origin of logotypes goes back to the 19th century, when industrial manufacture of products became important. The new industrial procedures allowed a much higher output then that of the former handmade products. The new products were distributed in large geographical areas, even nationwide. New competitors appeared from time to time, and the offer of products of a same kind increased notably. At that time, a significant part of the population was still illiterate. The industrial leaders became soon aware that the public would not easily differentiate their product from the same product of their competitors. More and more manufacturers began therefore to include a logo on their products, labels and packages, so that all the buyers could easily recognize the product they wanted.

The manufacturers later began to add the name of the company or of the product to their sign. The name being shaped often in a specific way by each manufacturer, these combined logotypes, which for the first time included sign and name, became extremely popular. During many decades, when a new logotype was designed, owners, advertising professionals and graphic designers had always in mind to create a logo which would appear with the logotype.

Today there are so many corporations, products, services, agencies and other entities using a logotype, that many of these have realized that of the thousands of logos people are faced with, only few are recognized without a name. The consequence is that there is a notion that it makes less sense to use a logo as a logotype, even together with the name, if people will not duly identify it. The trend in the last years has been, therefore, to use trademarks and names and to emphasize instead in the design of the name, making it unique by its letters, color and additional graphic elements. This notion might be misleading though, as a small product with a logo sometimes will grow in popularity, even grow across alphabet-borders, where for instance an arabic name would be of little help in most European markets, if it's written in Arabic. A logo would keep the general proprietary nature of the product in both markets. In non-profit areas, the [|Red Cross] is an example of an extremely well known logo which does not need a name to go with it. The following are a few examples of logotypes including only the name, actually brand names with the same font. The first table shows the names of six well-known companies in Arial typeface in all cases. In order to recognize the companies, the name has to be read. This takes a little time. The name as a graphic element is not easily memorized, so that it has to be read everytime it is seen or looked for. And, if all companies do the same, there is no difference between one or another, which again makes it necessary to read the name.
 * Logotype Examples **

The next table shows a totally different picture. Each company has a specific design of its name, a logotype. Due to the design, the color, the shape, and eventually additional elements of the logotype, each one is different from the others, especially from those of the competitors, so that they are easily recognized. For example, in a supermarket a box of [|Kellogg's] cereals will be seen in the shelf from a certain distance, due to the unique design of its logotype. The same will happen when one is looking at the airport for the booth of the [|Hertz Rent-A-Car] company. There is no need to read the name. The logotype will be recognized from far away because of its shape and its color.

__NOTES__
 * Maps used simple pictures to represent things. E.g. a ship symbol, it looks smaller and different from the real ones. Maps also use abbreviations to indicate the whereabouts of a location easier and user friendly for the users.


 * Maps symbols are hard to recognize. That’s why maps have a KEY. The key tells us what the symbols stand for or tells us what each symbols means.

<span style="background-color: #000000; color: #0075ff; display: block; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 130%; text-align: center;">LESSON 4 - ABBREVIATIONS AND SIGNS <span style="color: #00ff00; font-family: 'Lucida Console',Monaco,monospace; font-size: 16pt;">ABBREVIATION An **abbreviation** is a shortened form of a [|word] or [|phrase]. Usually, but not always, it consists of a letter or group of letters taken from the word or phrase. For example, the word //abbreviation// can itself be represented by the abbreviation //abbr.// or //abbrev.// In strict analysis, abbreviations should not be confused with [|contractions] or [|acronyms] (including initialisms), with which they share some [|semantic] and [|phonetic] functions, though all three are connoted by the term "abbreviation" in loose parlance. However, normally acronyms are regarded as a subgroup of abbreviations.

History

 * Abbreviation has been used as long as phonetic script existed, in some senses actually being more common in early literacy, where spelling out a whole word was often avoided, initial letters commonly being used to represent words in specific application.
 * The standardization of English in the 15th through 17th centuries included such a growth in the use of abbreviation
 * At first, abbreviations were sometimes represented with various suspension signs, not only periods.
 * In the 1830s in the United States, starting with Boston, abbreviation became a [|fad].
 * a century earlier in Boston, a fad of abbreviation started that swept the United States, with the globally popular term [|OK] generally credited as a remnant of its influence.
 * After [|World War II], the British greatly reduced their use of the full stop and other punctuation points after abbreviations in at least semi-formal writing, while the Americans more readily kept such use until more recently, and still maintain it more than Britons.
 * In [|French], the period only follows an abbreviation if the last letter in the abbreviation is //not// the last letter of its antecedent: "M." is the abbreviation for "monsieur" while "Mme" is that for "madame".
 * media tend to abbreviate two-word abbreviations like United States (U.S.), but not personal computer (PC) or television (TV).
 * Minimization of punctuation in typewritten matter became economically desirable in the 1960s and 1970s for the many users of carbon-film [|ribbons], since a period or comma consumed the same length of non-reusable expensive ribbon as did a capital letter.

Lowercase letters

 * If the original word was capitalized, then the first letter of its abbreviation should retain the capital.
 * When abbreviating words spelled with lower case letters, there is no need for capitalization.

Periods (full stops) and spaces

 * A period (full stop) is sometimes written after an abbreviated word, but there are exceptions and a general lack of consensus about when this should happen.
 * There is some confusion over the strict distinction between an abbreviation requiring a full point and a [|contraction] which does not need a full point or period.
 * [|American English] usage is less strict about this distinction and thus more likely to conclude a contraction with a period.
 * ** Example ** || ** Category ** || ** Short form ** || ** Source ** ||
 * [|Doctor] || Contraction || Dr || D–r ||
 * [|Professor] || Abbreviation || Prof. || Prof... ||
 * The [|Reverend] || Contraction (or Abbreviation) || Revd (or Rev.) || Rev–d ||
 * [|The Right Honourable] || Contraction and Abbreviation || Rt Hon. || R–t Hon... ||

Plural forms
To form the plural of an abbreviation, a number, or a capital letter used as a noun, simply add a lowercase //s// to the end. When an abbreviation contains more than one full point, put the //s// after the final one.[|[1]]:p175 However, subject to any house style or consistency requirement, the same plurals may be rendered less formally as: An apostrophe may be used in rare cases where clarity calls for it, for example when letters or symbols are referred to as objects.[|[1]]:p.66 However, the apostrophe can be dispensed with if the items are set in italics or quotes: In Latin, and continuing to the derivative forms in European languages as well as English, single-letter abbreviations had the plural being a doubling of the letter for note-taking. Most of these deal with writing and publishing. A few longer abbreviations use this as well.
 * A group of MPs
 * The roaring '20s
 * Mind your Ps and Qs
 * Ph.D.s
 * M.Phil.s
 * the d.t.s
 * PhDs
 * MPhils
 * the DTs (//delirium tremens//). (This is the recommended form in the New Oxford Dictionary for Writers and Editors.)
 * The x's of the equation
 * Dot the i's and cross the t's
 * The //x//s of the equation
 * Dot the 'i's and cross the 't's
 * **Singular abbreviation** || **Singular Word** || **Plural abbreviation** || **Plural Word** || **Discipline** ||
 * d. || didot || dd. || didots || typography ||
 * f. || following line or page || ff. || following lines or pages || notes ||
 * h. || hand || hh. || hands || horse height ||
 * l. || line || ll. || lines || notes ||
 * MS || manuscript || MSS || manuscripts || notes ||
 * op. || opus || opp. || opera || notes ||
 * p. || page || pp. || pages || notes ||
 * P. || pope || PP. || popes ||  ||
 * s. (or §) || section || ss. (or §§) || sections || notes ||
 * v. || volume || vv. || volumes || notes ||

United States
Publications based in the U.S. tend to follow the style guides of the [|Chicago Manual of Style] and the [|Associated Press].[[|//verification needed//]] The [|U.S. Government] follows a style guide published by the [|U.S. Government Printing Office]. However, there is some inconsistency in abbreviation styles, as they are not rigorously defined by style guides. Some two-word abbreviations, like "United Nations", are abbreviated with uppercase letters and periods, and others, like "personal computer" (PC) and "compact disc" (CD), are not; rather, they are typically abbreviated without periods and in uppercase letters. A third variation is to use lowercase letters with periods; this is used by Time Magazine in abbreviating "public relations" (p.r.). Moreover, even three-word abbreviations (most U.S. publications use uppercase abbreviations without periods) are sometimes not consistently abbreviated, even within the same article. [|//The New York Times//] is unique in having a consistent style by always abbreviating with periods: P.C., I.B.M., P.R. This is in contrast with the trend of British publications to omit periods for convenience.

United Kingdom
Many British publications follow some of these guidelines in abbreviation:
 * For the sake of convenience, many British publications, including the [|BBC] and [|//The Guardian//], have completely done away with the use of full stops or periods in all abbreviations. These include:
 * Social titles, like Ms or Mr (though these would usually not have had full stops — see above) Capt, Prof, //etc.;//
 * Two-letter abbreviations for countries (//"US"//, not //"U.S."//);
 * Abbreviations beyond three letters (full caps for all except initialisms);
 * Words seldom abbreviated with lower case letters (//"PR"//, instead of //"p.r."//, or //"pr"//)
 * Names (//"FW de Klerk"//, //"GB Whiteley"//, //"Park JS"//). A notable exception is [|//The Economist//] which writes //"Mr F. W. de Klerk"//.
 * Scientific units (see Measurement below).
 * [|Acronyms] are often referred to with only the first letter of the abbreviation capitalised. For instance, the [|North Atlantic Treaty Organisation] can be abbreviated as //"Nato"// or //"NATO"//, and [|Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome] as //"Sars"// or //"SARS"// (compare with //"//[|//laser//]//"// which has made the full transition to an English word and is rarely capitalised at all).
 * [|Initialisms] are always written in capitals; for example the //"British Broadcasting Corporation"// is abbreviated to //"BBC"//, never //"Bbc"//. An initialism is similar to acronym but is not pronounced as a word.
 * When abbreviating scientific units, no space is added between the number and unit (100mph, 100m, 10cm, 10°C). (This is contrary to the SI standard, see below.)

Miscellaneous and general rules

 * A doubled letter also appears in abbreviations of some Welsh names, as in [|Welsh] the double "l" is a separate sound: "Ll. George" for (British prime minister) [|David Lloyd George].
 * Some titles, such as "Reverend" and "Honourable", are spelt out when preceded by "the", rather than as "Rev." or "Hon." respectively. This is true for most British publications, and some in the United States.
 * A repeatedly-used abbreviation should be spelt out for identification on its first occurrence in a written or spoken passage. Abbreviations likely to be unfamiliar to many readers should be avoided.

Measurement
The [|International System of Units] (SI) defines a set of base units, from which other "derived" units may be obtained. The abbreviations, or more accurately "symbols" (using Roman letters, Greek letters in the case of [|ohm] and [|micro] and other characters in the case of [|degrees celsius]) for these units are also clearly defined together with a set of prefixes for which there are also abbreviations or symbols. There should never be a period after or inside a unit; both '10 k.m.' and '10 k.m' are wrong — the only correct form is '10 km' (only followed with a period when at the end of a sentence). A period "within" a compound unit denotes multiplication of the base units on each side of it. Ideally, this period should be raised to the centre of the line, but often it is not. For instance, '5 ms' means 5 millisecond(s), whereas '5 m.s' means 5 metre·second(s). The "m.s" here is a compound unit formed from the product of two fundamental SI units — metre and second. However, the [|middle dot] symbol (·, unicode U+00B7, HTML &middot;) is the preferred way to represent compound units when available, e.g. "5 m·s". There should always be a (non-breaking) space between the number and the unit — '25 km' is correct, and '25km' is incorrect. In Section 5.3.3. of [|//The International System of Units (SI)//], the [|International Bureau of Weights and Measures (BIPM)] states "The numerical value always precedes the unit, and a space is always used to separate the unit from the number. … The only exceptions to this rule are for the unit symbols for degree, minute, and second for plane angle."[|[5]] The [|case of letters] (uppercase or lowercase) has meaning in the SI system, and case should never be changed in a misguided attempt to follow an abbreviation style. For example, "10 S" denotes 10 siemens (a unit of conductance), while "10 s" denotes 10 seconds. Any unit named after a person is denoted by a symbol with an upper case first letter (S, Pa, A, V, N, Wb, W), but spelt out in full in lower case, (siemens, pascal, ampere, volt, newton, weber and watt). By contrast g, l, m, s, cd, ha represent gram, litre, metre, second, candela and hectare respectively. The one slight exception to this rule is that the symbol for litre is allowed to be L to help avoid confusion with an upper case //i// or a [|one] in some [|typefaces] — compare l, I, and 1. Likewise, the abbreviations of the prefixes denoting powers of ten are case-sensitive: m (milli) represents a thousandth, but M (mega) represents a million, so by inadvertent changes of case one may introduce (in this example) an error of a factor of 1 000 000 000. When a unit is written in full, the whole unit is written in lowercase, including the prefix: millivolt for mV, nanometre for nm, gigacandela for Gcd. The above rules, if followed, ensure that the SI system is always unambiguous, so for instance mK denotes millikelvin, MK denotes megakelvin, K.m denotes kelvin.metre, and km denotes kilometre. Forms such as k.m and Km are ill-formed and technically meaningless in the SI system, although the intended meaning might be inferred from the context.

Syllabic abbreviation
A **syllabic abbreviation** is an **abbreviation** formed from (usually) initial [|syllables] of several [|words], such as [|//Interpol//] = **//Inter//**//national// + **//pol//**//ice//. Syllabic abbreviations are usually written using [|lower case], sometimes starting with a [|capital letter], and are always pronounced as words rather than letter by letter. Syllabic abbreviations should be distinguished from [|portmanteaus].

Different languages
Syllabic abbreviations are not widely used in [|English] or [|French]. The United States Navy, however, often uses syllabic abbreviations, as described below. On the other hand, they prevailed in Germany under the [|Nazis] and in the Soviet Union for naming the plethora of new bureaucratic organizations. For example, [|//Gestapo//] stands for **//Ge//**//heime **Sta**ats-**Po**lizei//, or "secret state police". Similarly, [|//Comintern//] stands for the [|//Communist International//]. This has caused syllabic abbreviations to have negative connotation, notwithstanding that such abbreviations were used in Germany even before the Nazis came to power, e.g., [|//Schupo//] for //Schutzpolizei//. Syllabic abbreviations were also typical for the [|German language] used in the [|German Democratic Republic], e.g. [|//Stasi//] for //Staatssicherheit// ("state security", the secret police) or //Vopo// for //Volkspolizist// ("people's policeman"). East [|Asian] languages whose writing uses [|Chinese]-originated [|ideograms] instead of an alphabet form abbreviations similarly by using key [|characters] from a term or phrase. For example, in [|Japanese] the term for the [|United Nations], //kokusai rengō// (国際連合) is often abbreviated to //kokuren// (国連). (Such abbreviations are called [|ryakugo] (略語) in [|Japanese]). The syllabic abbreviation is frequently used for universities: for instance, //Běidà// (北大) for //Běijīng Dàxué// (北京大学, [|Peking University]) and //Tōdai// (東大) for //Tōkyō daigaku// (東京大学, [|University of Tokyo]).